Publications

This study investigates the impacts of the timing of an extreme cyclone that occurred in August 2012 on the sea-ice volume evolution based on the Arctic Ice Ocean Prediction System (ArcIOPS). By applying a novel cyclone removal algorithm to the atmospheric forcing during 4-12 August 2012, we superimpose the derived cyclone component onto the atmospheric forcing one month later or earlier. This study finds that although the extreme cyclone leads to strong sea-ice volume loss in all runs, large divergence occurs in sea-ice melting mechanism in response to various timing of the cyclone. The extreme cyclone occurred in August, when enhanced ice volume loss is attributed to ice bottom melt primarily and ice surface melt secondarily. If the cyclone occurs one month earlier, ice surface melt dominates ice volume loss, and earlier appearance of open water within the ice zone initiates positive ice-albedo feedback, leading to a long lasting of the cyclone-induced impacts for approximately one month, and eventually a lower September ice volume. In contrast, if the cyclone occurs one month later, ice bottom melt entirely dominates ice volume loss, and the air-open water heat flux in the ice zone tends to offset ice volume loss.

How a pair of pollutant parcels deviates from each other with an initial separation distance r₀, known as relative dispersion or Richardson dispersion, is relevant in many circumstances. This study examines the spatiotemporal similarity of the Richardson relative dispersion in the Gulf of Mexico by reanalyzing the Lagrangian trajectory of the surface drifter provided by two famous field experiments, that is, the Grand Lagrangian Deployment and the Lagrangian Submesoscale Experiment. The experimental dispersion curve indicates a critical separation time. When above this critical time, the dispersion shows an asymptotic power law growth independent of the initial separation distance r₀. Below it, the dispersion curve shows a strong spatiotemporal dependence with two spatiotemporal similarity regimes that can be identified for both experiments by looking at the isoline of the normalized dispersion curve. A new similarity variable is introduced to successfully collapse measured dispersion curves. However, the observed spatiotemporal similarity cannot be reproduced by the submesoscale preserved model. Thus, our results suggest that small-scale fluctuations play a crucial role in the relative dispersion of oceanic flows.

This study seeks to explore the relationship between upper ocean current (UOC) anomalies (above 200 meters) and surface wind stress (TAU), focusing on the influence of falling ice (snow) radiative effects (FIREs) over the tropical and subtropical Pacific regions. To achieve this, we conducted sensitivity experiments with the CESM1-CAM5 model, using the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) historical run setting, with FIREs turned off (NOS) and on (SON). The monthly ocean current and temperature of the ocean reanalysis from the NASA Estimating the Circulation and Climate of the Ocean (ECCO) project, which assimilates satellite and in situ measurements, serves as a reference for this study. The spatial patterns of the horizontal UOC anomaly (UOCA) differences between the NOS and SON experiments show a strong correlation with the TAU patterns across the studied domain. When compared to the experiments with NOS, the experiments with SON demonstrate an improvement in the annual mean UOC. The improvement in UOC can be attributed to the enhancements in TAU, specifically in the trade-wind regions. The enhancements in TAU play a significant role in influencing the UOCA patterns and contribute to the overall improvement observed in the experiments with SON. In SON, the average absolute bias of simulated UOCA over the study area is reduced by up to 30% compared to NOS against ECCO. Although biases in UOC are present over the southern and northern flanks of the equator in SON, the improvements in annual mean ocean currents are closely related to enhancements in TAU driven by the inclusion of FIREs. Notably, stronger ocean current magnitudes correspond to more significant changes in TAU due to Coriolis forces. When evaluating the ensemble mean absolute biases of UOC from the CMIP5 models, similarities to NOS, however, are limited over the South Pacific region.

Meridional freshwater transport (MFT) in the Atlantic Ocean (Atlantic meridional freshwater transport (AMFT)) plays a vital role in the Atlantic Ocean circulations, but an accurate estimate of AMFT time series remains challenging. This study uses an indirect approach that combines ocean salinity, surface evaporation and precipitation observations to derive AMFT and its uncertainty by solving the ocean freshwater budget equation. Climatologically, AMFT is southward between 18.5°S and 34.5°S, but northward from 18.5°S to 66.5°N. AMFT also shows substantial inter-annual variability with a clear separation at ∼40°N and is more coincident with the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) at 26°N than 47°N across latitudes. The derived time series indicates that throughout the Atlantic Ocean, there is a positive trend in the AMFT from 2004 to 2020, resulting in an AMFT convergence in the tropical Atlantic and an AMFT divergence in the subtropical North Atlantic.

A recent study using the first 21 months of the OSNAP time series revealed that the export of dense waters in the eastern subpolar North Atlantic — as part of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (MOC) — can be almost wholly attributed to surface-forced water mass transformation (SFWMT) in the Irminger and Iceland basins, thus suggesting a minor role for other means of transformation, such as diapycnal mixing. To understand whether this result is valid over a period that exceeds the current observational record, we use four different ocean reanalysis products to investigate the relationship between surface buoyancy forcing and dense water production in this region. We also reexplore this relationship with the now available 6-year OSNAP time series. Our analysis finds that although surface transformation in the eastern subpolar gyre dominates the production of deep waters, mixing processes downstream of the Greenland Scotland Ridge are also responsible for the production of waters carried within the AMOC's lower limb both in the observations and reanalyses. Further analysis of the reanalyses shows that SFWMT partly explains MOC interannual variability, the remaining portion can be attributed to basin storage and mixing. Compared to the observations, the reanalyses exhibit stronger MOC variance but comparable SFWMT variance on interannual timescales.

The Deep Cross-Equatorial Cell (DCEC) is the primary branch of Indian Ocean Meridional Overturning Circulation (MOC) in the tropical Indian Ocean, essential for energy redistribution, water exchange, and diapycnal mixing. However, the mechanisms behind its interannual variability remain limited. This study utilized two reanalysis data sets and a series of ocean model experiments with a Hybrid Coordinate Ocean Model and a Linear Ocean Model to investigate the underlying mechanisms. Model experiments highlight the critical role of direct local wind forcing and eastern boundary waves induced by remote equatorial wind forcing in influencing the DCEC variability. Specifically, through the first mode of baroclinic dynamics, direct wind forcing initiates reverse meridional flow at the DCEC core (around 8°S) in both surface and deep ocean layers, leading to interannual variations of the DCEC. During transitions of climate modes like ENSO and Indian Ocean Dipole from positive to negative phases, both positive and negative DCEC anomalies intensify. In addition to direct local wind forcing, the delayed-time Rossby waves reflected from the eastern boundary excited by the equatorial easterly wind in the previous year make substantial contributions (37.8%). The interplay of faster baroclinic Rossby waves at lower latitudes and slower baroclinic Rossby waves at higher latitudes alters the basin-wide pressure gradient, ultimately amplifying interannual DCEC anomalies in the subsequent year.

Beginning in March 2022, the Antarctic Peninsula's Hektoria Glacier experienced an unprecedented retreat of ∼23 km over 1.5 years, one of the fastest observed glacier retreats on record. Improving constraints on the drivers of such extreme events is key to understanding glacier change around the continent and future sea-level rise. We use satellite remote sensing and reanalysis data to characterize changes in Hektoria, a former Larsen B Ice Shelf tributary, over the last ∼20 years and document a period of retreat from 2002 to 2011, and readvancement from 2011 to 2022. We find that the long-term ice front and velocity response (2002-2022) correlated more strongly with changes in modeled ocean temperatures compared to surface air temperatures. However, the acute loss of buttressing support following fast ice collapse paired with a near-contemporaneous extreme atmospheric river in the region likely catalyzed the unprecedented 2022-2023 retreat.

The design of non-eddy-resolving numerical models requires a good understanding and an appropriate representation of the eddy-mean flow feedback. To understand this feedback, we propose a diagnostic framework that links eddy geometry with the eddy-mean energy exchange terms in the Lorenz energy diagram. This framework provides explicit mathematical formulas that link eddy-mean energy exchange rates with both the mean state structure and the properties of eddy momentum ellipses and eddy buoyancy ellipses. Considering that the mean flow contains both along- and cross-stream variations, we decompose the eddy-mean kinetic energy exchange term into 3 components: one associated with the cross-stream variation in mean flow (M_C), one associated with the along-stream variation in mean flow (M_A), and one associated with the variation in mean flow (M_R). We also state the corresponding geometric formulas. The geometric interpretation of M_C is consistent with barotropic instability theories and the literature on eddy geometry. As for M_A , the weakening (strengthening) of mean flow in the along-stream direction corresponds to eddy kinetic energy generation (decay) through M_A. M_A and a portion of M_R are related under the quasi-geostrophic assumption. From a global integral perspective, both the along-stream and cross-stream variations in the mean flow contribute considerably to eddy-mean kinetic energy exchange. At the Kuroshio Extension, both the mean state energy level and eddy energy level are key to shaping the spatial pattern of eddy-mean energy exchange. This framework offers a tool for geometrically interpreting eddy-mean energy exchange, which may offer guidance for eddy parameterizations.

Abstract. Global- and basin-scale ocean reanalyses are becoming easily accessible and are utilized widely to study the Southern Ocean. However, such ocean reanalyses are optimized to achieve the best model-data agreement for their entire model domains and their ability to simulate the Southern Ocean requires investigation. Here, we compare several ocean reanalyses (ECCOv4r5, ECCO LLC270, B-SOSE, and GECCO3) based on the Massachusetts Institute of Technology General Circulation Model (MITgcm) for the Southern Ocean. For the open ocean, the simulated time-mean hydrography and ocean circulation are similar to observations. The MITgcm-based ocean reanalyses show Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) levels measuring approximately 149 ± 11 Sv. The simulated 2 °C isotherms are located in positions similar to the ACC and roughly represent the southern extent of the current. Simulated Weddell Gyre and Ross Gyre strengths are 51 ± 11 and 25 ± 8 Sv, respectively, which is consistent with observation-based estimates. However, our evaluation finds that the time evolution of the Southern Ocean is not well simulated in these ocean reanalyses. While observations showed little change in open-ocean properties in the Weddell and Ross gyres, all simulations showed larger trends, most of which are excessive warming. For the continental shelf region, all reanalyses are unable to reproduce observed hydrographic features, suggesting that the simulated physics determining on-shelf hydrography and circulation is not well represented. Nevertheless, ocean reanalyses are valuable resources and can be used for generating ocean lateral boundary conditions for regional high-resolution simulations. We recommend that future users of these ocean reanalyses pay extra attention if their studies target open-ocean Southern Ocean temporal changes or on-shelf processes.

We extrapolated Arctic Ocean red SIF over the 2004-2020 period using a set of predictive variables that impact marine photosynthesis

The supergyre in the Southern Hemisphere is thought to connect the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific subtropical gyres together. The aim of the study is to investigate whether the supergyre is identifiable in the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) models and in the Estimating the Circulation and Climate of the Ocean (ECCO) reanalysis and to evaluate the influence of the supergyre on the properties of Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW), the dominant water mass at intermediate depths in the Southern Hemisphere. CMIP6 models and ECCO are in agreement at the surface with supergyres connected across all basins but present some differences at depth in both position and strength. AAIW core properties (temperature and salinity) present a high degree of similarity across basins within the supergyre but not outside of it. By the end of the century, the supergyre reduces in size and intensifies at intermediate depths, and the AAIW core depth warms in all basins and freshens in the Pacific although no clear trend in salinity can be found in the Atlantic and Indian basins in the SSP5-8.5 scenario. The high degree of similarity across basins within the supergyre is maintained in the future scenario. The results suggest that by connecting the basins together at intermediate depth, the supergyre plays a key role in circulating and homogenizing the AAIW core properties. Our results emphasize the role of the supergyre in circulating water masses at the surface and intermediate depths in CMIP6 models and hence its importance to the global circulation.

We are in a period of rapidly accelerating change across the Antarctic continent and Southern Ocean, with land ice loss leading to sea level rise and multiple other climate impacts. The ice-ocean interactions that dominate the current ice loss signal are a key underdeveloped area of knowledge. The paucity of direct and continuous observations leads to high uncertainty in the glaciological, oceanographic and atmospheric fields required to constrain ice-ocean interactions, and there is a lack of standardised protocols for reconciling observations across different platforms and technologies and modelled outputs. Funding to support observational campaigns is under increasing pressure, including for long-term, internationally coordinated monitoring plans for the Antarctic continent and Southern Ocean. In this Practice Bridge article, we outline research priorities highlighted by the international ice-ocean community and propose the development of a Framework for UnderStanding Ice-Ocean iNteractions (FUSION), using a combined observational-modelling approach, to address these issues. Finally, we propose an implementation plan for putting FUSION into practice by focusing first on an essential variable in ice-ocean interactions: ocean-driven ice shelf melt.

Abstract. The air-sea exchange of elemental mercury (Hg⁰) plays an important role in the global Hg cycle. Existing air-sea exchange models for Hg⁰ have not considered the impact of sea surfactants and wave breaking on the exchange velocity, leading to insufficient constraints on the flux of Hg⁰. In this study, we have improved the air-sea exchange model of Hg⁰ in the three-dimensional ocean transport model MITgcm (MIT General Circulation Model) by incorporating sea surfactants and wave-breaking processes through parameterization, utilizing the total organic carbon concentration and significant wave height data. The inclusion of these factors results in an increase of 62 %-225 % in the global transfer velocity of Hg0 relative to the baseline model. Air-sea exchange flux is increased in mid-latitude to high-latitude regions with high wind and wave-breaking efficiency, while it is reduced by surfactant and concentration change at low latitudes with low wind speeds and in nearshore areas with low wave heights. Compared with previous parameterizations, the updated model demonstrates a stronger dependence of Hg⁰ air-sea exchange velocity on wind speed. Our results also provide a theoretical explanation for the large variances in estimated transfer velocity between different schemes.

Satellite magnetic field observations have the potential to provide valuable information on dynamics, heat content and salinity throughout the ocean. Here, we present the expected spatio-temporal characteristics of the ocean-induced magnetic field (OIMF) at satellite altitude on periods of months to decades. We compare these to the characteristics of other sources of Earth's magnetic field, and discuss whether it is feasible for the OIMF to be retrieved and routinely monitored from space. We focus on large length scales (spherical harmonic degrees up to 30) and periods from one month up to 5 years. To characterize the expected ocean signal, we make use of advanced numerical simulations taking high-resolution oceanographic inputs and solve the magnetic induction equation in three dimensions, including galvanic coupling and self-induction effects. We find the time-varying ocean-induced signal dominates over the primary source of the internal field, the core dynamo, at high spherical harmonic degree with the cross-over taking place at degrees 13-19 depending on the considered period. The ionospheric and magnetospheric fields (including their Earth-induced counterparts) have most power on periods shorter than one month and are expected to be mostly zonal in magnetic coordinates at satellite altitude. Based on these findings, we discuss future prospects for isolating and monitoring long period OIMF variations using data collected by present and upcoming magnetic survey satellites.

Oceanic tidal constituents and depth-integrated electrical conductivity (ocean conductivity content, or OCC) extracted from electromagnetic (EM) field data are known to have a strong potential for monitoring ocean heat content, which reflects the Earth's energy imbalance. In comparison to ocean tide models, realistic ocean general circulation models have a greater need to be baroclinic; therefore, both OCC and depth-integrated conductivity-weighted velocity (${𝐓}_{𝛔}$) data are required to calculate the ocean circulation-induced magnetic field (OCIMF). Owing to a lack of ${𝐓}_{𝛔}$ observations, we calculate the OCIMF using an ocean state estimate. There are significant trends in the OCIMF primarily owing to responses in the velocities to external forcings and the warming influence on OCC between 1993 and 2017, particularly in the Southern Ocean. Despite being depth-integrated quantities, OCC and ${𝐓}_{𝛔}$ (which primarily determine the OCIMF in an idealized EM model) can provide a strong constraint on the baroclinic velocities and ocean mixing parameters when assimilated into an ocean state estimation framework. A hypothetical fleet of full-depth EM-capable floats would therefore help improve the accuracy of the OCIMF computed with an ocean state estimate, which could potentially provide valuable guidance on how to extract the OCIMF from satellite magnetometry observations.

Saltwater intrusion is a critical concern for coastal communities due to its impacts on fresh ecosystems and civil infrastructure. Declining recharge and rising sea level are the two dominant drivers of saltwater intrusion along the land-ocean continuum, but there are currently no global estimates of future saltwater intrusion that synthesize these two spatially variable processes. Here, for the first time, we provide a novel assessment of global saltwater intrusion risk by integrating future recharge and sea level rise while considering the unique geology and topography of coastal regions. We show that nearly 77% of global coastal areas below 60° north will undergo saltwater intrusion by 2100, with different dominant drivers. Climate-driven changes in subsurface water replenishment (recharge) is responsible for the high-magnitude cases of saltwater intrusion, whereas sea level rise and coastline migration are responsible for the global pervasiveness of saltwater intrusion and have a greater effect on low-lying areas.

Ocean and sea ice reanalyses (ORAs or ocean syntheses) are reconstructions of the ocean and sea ice states using an ocean model integration constrained by atmospheric surface forcing and ocean observations via a data assimilation method. Ocean reanalyses are a valuable tool for monitoring and understanding long-term ocean variability at depth, mainly because this part of the ocean is still largely unobserved. Sea surface temperature (SST) is the key variable that drives the air-sea interaction process on different time scales. Despite improvements in model and reanalysis schemes, ocean reanalyses show errors when evaluated with independent observations. The independent evaluation studies of SST from ocean reanalysis over the Indian Ocean are limited. In this study, we evaluated the SST from 10 reanalysis products (ECCO, BRAN, SODA, NCEP-GODAS, GODAS-MOM4p1, ORAS5, CGLORS, GLORYS2V4, GLOSEA, and GREP) and five synthetic observation products (COBE, ERSST, OISST, OSTIA, and HadISST) and from the pure observation-based product AMSR2 for 2012-2017 with 12 in-situ buoy observations (OMNI) over the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. Even though the reanalysis and observational products perform very well in the open ocean, the performance is poorer near the coast and islands. The reanalysis products perform comparatively better than most of the observational products. COBE and OISST perform better among the synthetic observational products in the northern Indian Ocean. GODAS-MOM4p1 and GREP performs best among the reanalysis products, often surpassing the observational products. ECCO shows poorer performance and higher bias in the Bay of Bengal. Comparing the BRAN daily and monthly SST, the monthly SST performance of reanalysis is better than the daily time scale.

High latitudes, including the Bering Sea, are experiencing unprecedented rates of change. Long-term Bering Sea warming trends have been identified, and marine heatwaves (MHWs), event-scale elevated sea surface temperature (SST) extremes, have also increased in frequency and longevity in recent years. Recent work has shown that variability in air-sea coupling plays a dominant role in driving Bering Sea upper-ocean thermal variability and that surface forcing has driven an increase in the occurrence of positive ocean temperature anomalies since 2010. In this work, we characterize the drivers of the anomalous surface air-sea heat fluxes in the Bering Sea over the period 2010-22 using ERA5 fields. We show that the surface turbulent heat flux dominates the net surface heat flux variability from September to April and is primarily a result of near-surface air temperature and specific humidity anomalies. The airmass anomalies that account for the majority of the turbulent heat flux variability are a function of wind direction, with southerly (northerly) wind advecting anomalously warm (cool), moist (dry) air over the Bering Sea, resulting in positive (negative) surface turbulent flux anomalies. During the remaining months of the year, anomalies in the surface radiative fluxes account for the majority of the net surface heat flux variability and are a result of anomalous cloud coverage, anomalous lower-tropospheric virtual temperature, and sea ice coverage variability. Our results indicate that atmospheric variability drives much of the Bering Sea upper-ocean temperature variability through the mediation of the surface heat fluxes during the analysis period.

Recent polar motion data do not show a 6-year beat and indicate the absence of the Chandler wobble (CW), whereas we could observe the 6-year beat even in the 1920-40 s when the CW amplitude was known to be smallest. As a free mode, the CW needs excitation one or more sources that were debated decades ago but are now attributed to the atmosphere, ocean, and possibly land water. Here, we show that the anomaly started in 2015, after which two independent estimates of the atmospheric CW excitation became persistently smaller than before. However, the estimates of the oceanic and land-water contributions are too large, suggesting improved estimates are needed. Taking advantage of the recent CW anomaly, we show that the quality factor of CW is not as high as 100 as previously preferred. Although the CW excitation processes have been assumed random, a termination of near-resonant processes would rather be consistent with the present findings.

The surface velocity of the Amery Ice Shelf (AIS) is vital to assessing its stability and mass balance. Previous studies have shown that the AIS basin has a stable multi-year average surface velocity. However, spatiotemporal variations in the surface velocity of the AIS and the underlying physical mechanism remain poorly understood. This study combined offset tracking and DInSAR methods to extract the monthly surface velocity of the AIS and obtained the inter-annual surface velocity from the ITS_LIVE product. An uneven spatial distribution in inter-annual variation in the surface velocity was observed between 2000 and 2022, although the magnitude of variation was small at less than 20.5 m/yr. The increase and decrease in surface velocity on the eastern and western-central sides of the AIS, respectively, could be attributed to the change in the thickness of the AIS. There was clear seasonal variation in monthly average surface velocity at the eastern side of the AIS between 2017 and 2021, which could be attributed to variations in the area and thickness of fast-ice and also to variations in ocean temperature. This study suggested that changes in fast-ice and ocean temperature are the main factors driving spatiotemporal variation in the surface velocity of the AIS.

The operational sea ice forecasts from the Arctic Ice Ocean Prediction System (ArcIOPS) during 2021-2023 are validated against satellite-retrieved sea ice concentration and drift data, in situ and reanalyzed sea ice thickness data. The results indicate that the ArcIOPS has a reliable capacity on the Arctic sea ice forecasts for the future 7 days. Over the validation period, the root mean square error (RMSE) of the ArcIOPS sea ice concentration forecasts at a lead time of up to 168 h ranges between 8% and 20%, and the integrated ice edge error (IIEE) is lower than 1.6 × 10⁶ km² with respect to the Hai Yang 2B (HY-2B) sea ice concentration data. Compared to the Pan-Arctic Ice Ocean Modeling and Assimilation System (PIOMAS), sea ice volume evolution from the ArcIOPS forecasts is closer to that derived from the CS2SMOS sea ice thickness observations, which have been assimilated into the ArcIOPS. Sea ice thickness comparisons at three locations in the Beaufort Sea between the ArcIOPS forecasts and in situ mooring observations also prove that the sea ice thickness forecasts are credible, which sets a solid basis for supporting ice-breaker navigation in the Arctic thick ice zone. The sea ice drift deviations between the ArcIOPS forecasts and the National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) data are lower than 4 cm/s in most of the months. Future work will emphasize on developing multi-variable data assimilation scheme and fully coupled air-ice-ocean forecasting system for the Arctic sea ice forecasts.

The southern tropical Indian Ocean (TIO) displays large mixed layer salinity (MLS) variation. Circulation in this region is governed by the Indian Ocean tropical gyre (IOTG), where the source water proportion and associated mixing remain unclear. Particles integrating into the IOTG and entering the central southern TIO originate from the Bay of Bengal, Malacca Strait, western Indian Ocean, and Indonesian Throughflow. Surprisingly, cross-equatorial advection is particularly important, implying a significant connection between both the Bay of Bengal and the South China Sea via Malacca Strait into the southern TIO. The anomalous anticlockwise circulation weakens the IOTG during positive Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD). An opposite pattern is observed in the negative IOD. A particle experiment reveals that water masses are modulated by the anomalous circulation that drives the redistribution of MLS by changing the proportion of the different source waters. This represents a potential predictability for the southern TIO MLS variability.

Detecting crustal deformation during transient deformation events at offshore subduction zones remains challenging. The spatiotemporal evolution of slow slip events (SSEs) on the offshore Hikurangi subduction zone, New Zealand, during February-July 2019, is revealed through a time-dependent inversion of onshore and offshore geodetic data that also accounts for spatially varying elastic crustal properties. Our model is constrained by seafloor pressure time series (as a proxy for vertical seafloor deformation), onshore continuous Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) data, and Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar displacements. Large GNSS displacements onshore and uplift of the seafloor (10-33 mm) require peak slip during the event of 150 to >200 mm at 6-12 km depth offshore Hawkes Bay and Gisborne, comparable to maximum slip observed during previous seafloor pressure deployments at north Hikurangi. The onshore and offshore data reveal a complex evolution of the SSE, over a period of months. Seafloor pressure data indicates the slow slip may have persisted longer near the trench than suggested by onshore GNSS stations in both the Gisborne and Hawkes Bay regions. Seafloor pressure data also reveal up-dip migration of SSE slip beneath Hawke Bay occurred over a period of a few weeks. The SSE source region appears to coincide with locations of the March 1947 M_w 7.0-7.1 tsunami earthquake offshore Gisborne and estimated great earthquake rupture sources from paleoseismic investigations offshore Hawkes Bay, suggesting that the shallow megathrust at north and central Hikurangi is capable of both seismic and aseismic rupture.

In climate studies, it is crucial to distinguish between changes caused by natural variability and those resulting from external forcing. Here we use a suite of numerical experiments based on the ECCO-Darwin ocean biogeochemistry model to separate the impact of the atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) growth rate and climate on the ocean carbon sink - with a goal of disentangling the space-time variability of the dominant drivers. When globally integrated, the variable atmospheric growth rate and climate exhibit similar magnitude impacts on ocean carbon uptake. At local scales, interannual variability in air-sea CO₂ flux is dominated by climate. The implications of our study for real-world ocean observing systems are clear: in order to detect future changes in the ocean sink due to slowing atmospheric CO₂ growth rates, better observing systems and constraints on climate-driven ocean variability are required.

Abstract. This study investigates the use of a masked autoencoder (MAE) to address the challenge of filling gaps in high-resolution (1 km) sea surface temperature (SST) fields caused by cloud cover, which often result in gaps in the SST data and/or blurry imagery in blended SST products. Our study demonstrates that MAE, a deep learning model, can efficiently learn the anisotropic nature of small-scale ocean fronts from numerical simulations and reconstruct the artificially masked SST images. The MAE model is trained and evaluated on synthetic SST fields and tested on real satellite SST data from the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) sensor on the Suomi NPP satellite. We demonstrate that the MAE model trained on numerical simulations can provide a computationally efficient alternative for filling gaps in satellite SST. MAE can reconstruct randomly occluded images with a root mean square error (RMSE) of under 0.2 °C for masking ratios of up to 80 %. A trained MAE model in inference mode is exceptionally efficient, requiring 3 orders of magnitude (approximately 5000×) less time compared to the conventional approaches of cubic radial basis interpolation and Kriging tested on a single CPU. The ability to reconstruct high-resolution SST fields under cloud cover has important implications for understanding and predicting global and regional climates and detecting small-scale SST fronts that play a crucial role in the exchange of heat, carbon, and nutrients between the ocean surface and deeper layers. Our findings highlight the potential of deep learning models such as MAE to improve the accuracy and resolution of SST data at kilometer scales. This presents a promising avenue for future research in the field of small-scale ocean remote sensing analyses.

Energetic mesoscale eddies are often accompanied by strong submesoscale variability, which plays a significant role in connecting mesoscale and turbulent motions in the ocean and leads to strong vertical motions. The product of a high-resolution (1/48°) oceanic numerical model, the LLC4320, is employed to investigate the seasonal variations of vertical heat transport induced by submesoscale processes within multiple mesoscale eddies in the Kuroshio Extension (KE) region. In different seasons, the submesoscale vertical heat transport exhibits a consistent upward pattern, with notably higher magnitudes observed during winter. In winter, the maxima value of submesoscale vertical heat flux (SVHF) can account for approximately 60% of the total vertical heat flux (VHF). This is equivalent to the average net sea surface heat flux in a single eddy region. In summer and autumn, the maxima absolute value of submesoscale vertical heat flux can account for approximately 30% of the total VHF. Energy analysis reveals that baroclinic instability associated with vertical buoyancy flux has a crucial effect on generating submesoscale processes within the eddy region. The submesoscale motions are influenced by the mixed layer instability, strain-induced frontogenesis, turbulent thermal wind and turbulent thermal wind-induced frontogenesis within the upper mixed layer, while they are largely associated with the strain-induced frontogenesis in the ocean interior. Furthermore, the upward low-frequency submesoscale vertical heat transport is generated by submesoscale secondary circulation at eddy peripheries.

In recent years, significant changes in environmental conditions and marine ecosystems have been observed in the East Sea/Japan Sea. This study investigates the long-term environmental dynamics and phytoplankton responses in the Ulleung Basin, situated in the southwestern East Sea/Japan Sea, utilizing satellite and in situ data from 2002 to 2021. Over this period, there was a noticeable increase in sea surface temperature (SST) (r = 0.5739, p < 0.01), accompanied by decreasing mixed layer depth (MLD) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) concentration (r = −0.6193 and −0.6721, respectively; p < 0.01). Nutrient concentrations within the upper 50 m significantly declined for nitrate and phosphate. A reduction in the N:P ratio indicated a shift from phosphorus-limited to nitrogen-limited environment. Moreover, primary production (PP) demonstrated a decreasing trend (r = −0.5840, p < 0.01), coinciding with an increase in small phytoplankton contribution (r = 0.6399, p < 0.01). Rising SST potentially altered the water column's vertical structure, hindering nutrient entrainment from the deep ocean. Consequently, this nutrient limitation may increase small phytoplankton contribution, resulting in a decline in total PP. Under the IPCC's SSP5-8.5 scenario, small phytoplankton contribution in the Ulleung Basin is projected to rise by over 10%, resulting in a 29% average PP decrease by 2100. This suggests a diminishing energy supply to the food web in a warming ocean, impacting higher trophic levels and major fishery resources. These findings emphasize the critical need for understanding and monitoring these environmental shifts for effective fisheries management and marine ecosystem conservation.

Global pollution has exacerbated accumulation of toxicants like methylmercury (MeHg) in seafood. Human exposure to MeHg has been associated with long-term neurodevelopmental delays and impaired cardiovascular health, while many micronutrients in seafood are beneficial to health. The largest MeHg exposure source for many general populations originates from marine fish that are harvested from the global ocean and sold in the commercial seafood market. Here, we use high-resolution catch data for global fisheries and an empirically constrained spatial model for seafood MeHg to examine the spatial origins and magnitudes of MeHg extracted from the ocean. Results suggest that tropical and subtropical fisheries account for >70% of the MeHg extracted from the ocean because they are the major fishing grounds for large pelagic fishes and the natural biogeochemistry in this region facilitates seawater MeHg production. Compounding this issue, micronutrients (selenium and omega-3 fatty acids) are lowest in seafood harvested from warm, low-latitude regions and may be further depleted by future ocean warming. Our results imply that extensive harvests of large pelagic species by industrial fisheries, particularly in the tropics, drive global public health concerns related to MeHg exposure. We estimate that 84 to 99% of subsistence fishing entities globally likely exceed MeHg exposure thresholds based on typical rates of subsistence fish consumption. Results highlight the need for both stringent controls on global pollution and better accounting for human nutrition in fishing choices.

This study uses an oceanic energy budget to estimate the ocean heat transport convergence in the North Atlantic during 2005-2018. The horizontal convergence of the ocean heat transport is estimated using ocean heat content tendency primarily derived from satellite altimetry combined with space gravimetry. The net surface energy fluxes are inferred from mass-corrected divergence of atmospheric energy transport and tendency of the ECMWF ERA5 reanalysis combined with top-of-the-atmosphere radiative fluxes from the clouds and the Earth's radiant energy system project. The indirectly estimated horizontal convergence of the ocean heat transport is integrated between the rapid climate change-meridional overturning circulation and heatflux array (RAPID) section at 26.5°N (operating since 2004) and the overturning in the subpolar north atlantic program (OSNAP) section, situated at 53°-60°N (operating since 2014). This is to validate the ocean heat transport convergence estimate against an independent estimate derived from RAPID and OSNAP in-situ measurements. The mean ocean energy budget of the North Atlantic is closed to within ± 0.25 PW between RAPID and OSNAP sections. The mean oceanic heat transport convergence between these sections is 0.58 ± 0.25 PW, which agrees well with observed section transports. Interannual variability of the inferred oceanic heat transport convergence is also in reasonable agreement with the interannual variability observed at RAPID and OSNAP, with a correlation of 0.54 between annual time series. The correlation increases to 0.67 for biannual time series. Other estimates of the ocean energy budget based on ocean heat content tendency derived from various methods give similar results. Despite a large spread, the correlation is always significant meaning the results are robust against the method to estimate the ocean heat content tendency.

Vertical exchange of heat and carbon in the ocean regulates Earth's climate. Convection, a driver of near surface exchange, occurs when dense water overlies light water. Fofonoff (1957) pointed out that when lighter overlying cold-fresh water mixes with denser underlying warm-salty water, the mixture can become denser than the underlying water due to a nonlinear process known as cabbeling. He suggested that such profiles, despite being gravitationally stable, could be classed as being unstable to cabbeling. Fofonoff (1957) hypothesised that, by mixing away such profiles, cabbeling may be shaping the thermohaline structure of polar oceans. We investigate this hypothesis here. In a one-dimensional model we find that convective mixing occurs in temperature inverted profiles that are unstable to cabbeling even when they are initially gravitationally stable. In data from an observationally constrained global circulation model, we find profiles with a temperature inversion larger than −0.5°C are unstable to cabbeling less than 0.02% of the time and in high quality in-situ observations they are unstable less than 12% of the time. We find that due to cabbeling larger temperature inversions, which should weaken stratification, make profiles more stable. Our results suggest that cabbeling limits the stability behaviour of temperature inverted profiles and influences the thermohaline structure in parts of the ocean where cold-fresh water overlays warm-salty water.

Global estimates of mesoscale vertical velocity remain poorly constrained due to a historical lack of adequate observations on the spatial and temporal scales needed to measure these small magnitude velocities. However, with the wide-spread and frequent observations collected by the Argo array of autonomous profiling floats, we can now better quantify mesoscale vertical velocities throughout the global ocean. We use the underutilized trajectory data files from the Argo array to estimate the time evolution of isotherm displacement around a float as it drifts at 1,000 m, allowing us to quantify vertical velocity averaged over approximately 4.5 days for that depth level. The resulting estimates have a non-normal, high-peak, and heavy-tail distribution. The vertical velocity distribution has a mean value of (1.9 ± 0.02) × 10⁻⁶ m s⁻¹ and a median value of (1.3 ± 0.2) × 10⁻⁷ m s⁻¹, but the high-magnitude events can be up to the order of 10⁻⁴ m s⁻¹. We find that vertical velocity is highly spatially variable and is largely associated with a combination of topographic features and horizontal flow. These are some of the first observational estimates of mesoscale vertical velocity to be taken across such large swaths of the ocean without assumptions of uniformity or reliance on horizontal divergence.

The performance of global ocean biogeochemical models can be quantified as the misfit between modeled tracer distributions and observations, which is sought to be minimized during parameter optimization. These models are computationally expensive due to the long spin-up time required to reach equilibrium, and therefore optimization is often laborious. To reduce the required computational time, we investigate whether optimization of a biogeochemical model with shorter spin-ups provides the same optimized parameters as one with a full-length, equilibrated spin-up over several millennia. We use the global ocean biogeochemical model MOPS with a range of lengths of model spin-up and calibrate the model against synthetic observations derived from previous model runs using a derivative-free optimization algorithm (DFO-LS). When initiating the biogeochemical model with tracer distributions that differ from the synthetic observations used for calibration, a minimum spin-up length of 2,000 years was required for successful optimization due to certain parameters which influence the transport of matter from the surface to the deeper ocean, where timescales are longer. However, preliminary results indicate that successful optimization may occur with an even shorter spin-up by a judicious choice of initial condition, here the synthetic observations used for calibration, suggesting a fruitful avenue for future research.

The Greenland ice sheet (GrIS) is at present the largest single contributor to global-mass-induced sea-level rise, primarily because of Arctic amplification on an increasingly warmer Earth. However, the processes of englacial water accumulation, storage and ultimate release remain poorly constrained. Here we show that a noticeable amount of the summertime meltwater mass is temporally buffered along the entire GrIS periphery, peaking in July and gradually reducing thereafter. Our results arise from quantifying the spatiotemporal behaviour of the total mass of water leaving the GrIS by analysing bedrock elastic deformation measured by Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) stations. The buffered meltwater causes a subsidence of the bedrock close to GNSS stations of at most approximately 5 mm during the melt season. Regionally, the duration of meltwater storage ranges from 4.5 weeks in the southeast to 9 weeks elsewhere. We also show that the meltwater runoff modelled from regional climate models may contain systematic errors, requiring further scaling of up to about 20% for the warmest years. These results reveal a high potential for GNSS data to constrain poorly known hydrological processes in Greenland, forming the basis for improved projections of future GrIS melt behaviour and the associated sea-level rise.

Satellite observations revealed two extremely low surface chlorophyll concentration (SCC) events with a warm sea surface temperature anomaly in the southeastern Arabian Sea (SEAS, 6°-15°N, 72°-77°E) during the summer (July-August-September) in 2015 and 2019. We find that the physical processes leading to these two similar low SCC events are remarkably different. The low SCC in the SEAS during summer 2019 is mainly related to the weakened upwelling and deepening of the thermocline depth due to the combined effects of the local wind anomalies and the arrival of westward-propagating downwelling coastal Kelvin wave driven by easterly anomalies near the eastern Sri Lanka during an extreme positive Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) event. In summer 2015, a weaker positive IOD-induced easterly anomalies in the southern Bay of Bengal also drives downwelling coastal Kelvin waves westward, deepening the thermocline in the SEAS. But unlike that in summer 2019, the local wind stress curl anomalies in the SEAS during summer 2015 favors upwelling, which counteracts the downward motion of the coastal Kelvin waves, leading to weaker downward transport (one-third of that in 2019). Meanwhile, the upper ocean layer in the SEAS experiences extreme warming during summer owing to the development of 2015/2016 super El Niño. This substantial warming enhances upper oceanic stratification, which results in weaker vertical mixing and reduces the SCC to an extremely low level despite the much weaker IOD strength in 2015.

Abstract. An operational synoptic-scale sea ice forecasting system for the Southern Ocean, namely the Southern Ocean Ice Prediction System (SOIPS), has been developed to support ship navigation in the Antarctic sea ice zone. Practical application of the SOIPS forecasts had been implemented for the 38th Chinese National Antarctic Research Expedition for the first time. The SOIPS is configured on an Antarctic regional sea ice-ocean-ice shelf coupled model and an ensemble-based localized error subspace transform Kalman filter data assimilation model. Daily near-real-time satellite sea ice concentration observations are assimilated into the SOIPS to update sea ice concentration and thickness in the 12 ensemble members of the model state. By evaluating the SOIPS performance in forecasting sea ice metrics in a complete melt-freeze cycle from 1 October 2021 to 30 September 2022, this study shows that the SOIPS can provide reliable Antarctic sea ice forecasts. In comparison with non-assimilated EUMETSAT Ocean and Sea Ice Satellite Application Facility (OSI SAF) data, annual mean root mean square errors in the sea ice concentration forecasts at a lead time of up to 168 h are lower than 0.19, and the integrated ice edge errors in the sea ice forecasts in most freezing months at lead times of 24 and 72 h maintain around 0.5×106 km² and below 1.0×106 km², respectively. With respect to the scarce Ice, Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite-2 (ICESat-2) observations, the mean absolute errors in the sea ice thickness forecasts at a lead time of 24 h are lower than 0.3 m, which is in the range of the ICESat-2 uncertainties. Specifically, the SOIPS has the ability to forecast sea ice drift, in both magnitude and direction. The derived sea ice convergence rate forecasts have great potential for supporting ship navigation on a fine local scale. The comparison between the persistence forecasts and the SOIPS forecasts with and without data assimilation further shows that both model physics and the data assimilation scheme play important roles in producing reliable sea ice forecasts in the Southern Ocean.

Hurricane Otis (HO) occurred in the eastern tropical Pacific (ETP), intensifying rapidly and unexpectedly, making landfall near Acapulco at 06:25 UTC on October 25, 2023 as a category five hurricane. Official and unofficial national weather forecasts (NWF) failed to predict HO's development, trajectory, and intensification. To analyze the reasons for the failure of the NWF, we conducted two experiments using the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model, with Global Forecast System (GFS) and fifth-generation ECMWF atmospheric reanalysis (ERA5) data as initial condition (IC). Our results showed that some fields in the GFS data, such as relative humidity, convective available potential energy, and even sea surface temperature, were more favorable for the development and intensification of the disturbance compared to ERA5. However, the three-dimensional structure of the wind field in the ETP in GFS did not contribute to the initial development of HO. Additionally, we explored the WRF's sensitivity to different model configurations to simulate the trajectory and intensity of the hurricane using a coupled ocean-atmosphere system composed of WRF and a three-dimensional upper-ocean circulation model based on Price-Weller-Pinkel. Our numerical experiments involve modifications in the IC, cumulus parameterizations (CP), roughness coefficients, spatial resolutions, different time steps, and an idealized coupled model. The sensitivity test reveals the significance of the CP scheme, where the Kain-Fritsch was the only one that helped simulate the HO properly, altogether with increased spatial resolution. Furthermore, ocean-atmosphere coupling improves the prediction of the landfall time and location of the HO. However, no experiment captured the intensity or rapid intensification of HO.

Fronts in the Bay of Bengal (BoB) are active and can potentially impact the regional dynamics such as temperature variability, salinity distribution and oceanic circulation. Based on the high resolution model output (LLC4320), this study investigates the characteristics of submesoscale fronts in the northern BoB and associated compensation/reinforcement effects. At sea surface, horizontal gradients of salinity and density are remarkable in the northern BoB, and they are nearly 3 times larger than temperature gradients. As the depth deepens, temperature gradients increase and become comparable to salinity gradients, while density gradients decrease a lot due to the increasing effects of compensation at subsurface. Statistical results show the dominance of salinity-controlled fronts over temperature-controlled fronts, and compensated fronts over reinforced fronts. The surface cooling/heating results in significant temporal variation of compensation at surface, but this variation is limited at subsurface by the blocking of the mixed layer base. The submesoscale-selective feature of compensation is much more pronounced at subsurface layer than surface layer. From statistical analysis and idealized numerical model, we found the slump of salinity-controlled compensated fronts are important in generating temperature inversion and maintaining barrier layer. This study validates the compensation theories originating from observations, and further illustrates the importance of subsurface compensated fronts using spatially continuous, regionally extended and longer-term model output. The subsurface-intensified submesoscale-selective compensation is proved for the first time in this study.

We investigate the influence of tides on the exchange of water between the Arabian Gulf and the Sea of Oman through the Strait of Hormuz using a high-resolution numerical model. Two numerical simulations are contrasted, one with and one without tidal forcing. We find that tides suppress exchange through the Strait, by ∼20% in the annual mean, being largest in the summer (∼30%) and diminishing in the winter (∼13%). Tides enhance the parameterised shear-driven vertical mixing inside the Gulf and Strait, mixing warm, relatively fresh surface waters downward thus reducing the density of bottom waters flowing outwards. This reduces the lateral difference of density between Gulf and Sea of Oman and hence the exchange through the Strait. Maximum reductions occur in summer when both the vertical stratification and mixing is the largest.

We used NASA's high-resolution (1/48° or 2.3 km, hourly) Estimating the Circulation and Climate of the Ocean (ECCO) estimates of salinity at a 1 m depth from November 2011 to October 2012 to detect semi-diurnal and diurnal internal tides (ITs) in the Andaman Sea and determine their characteristics in three 2° × 2° boxes off the Myanmar coast (box A), central Andaman Sea (box B), and off the Thailand coast (box C). We also used observed salinity and temperature data for the above period at the BD12-moored buoy in the central Andaman Sea. ECCO salinity data were bandpass-filtered with 11-14 h and 22-26 h periods. Large variations in filtered ECCO salinity (~0.1 psu) in the boxes corresponded with near-surface imprints of propagating ITs. Observed data from the box B domain reveals strong salinity stratification (halocline) in the upper 40 m. Our analyses reveal that the shallow halocline affects the signatures of propagating semi-diurnal ITs reaching the surface, but diurnal ITs propagating in the halocline reach up to the surface and bring variability in ECCO salinity. In box A, the semi-diurnal IT characteristics are higher speeds (0.96 m/s) with larger wavelengths (45 km), that are closer to theoretical mode 2 estimates, but the diurnal ITs propagating in the box A domain, with a possible source over the shelf of Gulf of Martaban, attain lower values (0.45 m/s, 38 km). In box B, the propagation speed is lower (higher) for semi-diurnal (diurnal) ITs. Estimates for box C are closer to those for box A.

As the only oceanic connection between the Pacific and Arctic-Atlantic Oceans, Bering Strait throughflow carries a climatological northward transport of about 1 Sv, contributing to the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC). Here, Lagrangian analysis quantifies the global distributions of volume transport, transit-times, thermohaline properties, diapycnal transformation, heat and freshwater transports associated with Bering Strait throughflow. Virtual Lagrangian parcels, released at Bering Strait, are advected by the velocity of Estimating the Circulation and Climate of the Ocean, backward and forward in time. Backward trajectories reveal that Bering Strait throughflow enters the Pacific basin on the southeast side, as part of fresh Antarctic Intermediate Water, then follows the wind-driven circulation to Bering Strait. Median transit time from S in Indo-Pacific to Bering Strait is 175 years. Sixty-four percent of Bering Strait throughflow enters the North Atlantic through the Labrador Sea. The remaining 36% flows through the Greenland Sea, warmed and salinified by the northward flowing Atlantic waters. Deep water formation of water flowing through Bering Strait occurs predominantly in the Labrador Sea. Subsequently, this water joins the lower branch of AMOC, flowing southward in the deep western boundary current as North Atlantic Deep Water. Median transit time from Bering Strait to S in South Atlantic is 160 years. The net heat transport of Bering Strait throughflow is northward everywhere, and net freshwater transport by Bering Strait throughflow is mostly northward. The freshwater transport is largest in the subpolar region of basin sectors: northward in the Pacific and Arctic and southward in the Atlantic.

Abyssal T-waves are seismo-acoustic waves originating from abyssal oceans. Unlike subduction-zone-generated slope T-waves which are generated through multiple reflections between the sea surface and the gently dipping seafloor, the genesis of abyssal T-waves cannot be explained by the same theory. Several hypotheses, including seafloor scattering, sea surface scattering, and internal-wave-induced volumetric scattering, have been proposed to elucidate their genesis and propagation. The elusive mechanism of abyssal T-waves, particularly at low-frequencies, hinders their use to quantify ocean temperatures through seismic ocean thermometry (SOT) and estimate oceanic earthquake parameters. Here, using realistic geophysical and oceanographic data, we first conduct numerical simulations to compare synthetic low-frequency abyssal T-waves under different hypotheses. Our simulations for the Romanche and Blanco transform faults suggest seafloor scattering as the dominant mechanism, with sea surface and internal waves contributing marginally. Short-scale bathymetry can significantly enhance abyssal T-waves across a broad frequency range. Also, observed T-waves from repeating earthquakes in the Romanche, Chain, and Blanco transform faults exhibit remarkably high repeatability. Given the dynamic nature of sea surface roughness and internal waves, the highly repeatable T-wave arrivals further support the seafloor scattering as the primary mechanism. The dominance of seafloor scattering makes abyssal T-waves useable for constraining ocean temperature changes, thereby greatly expanding the data spectrum of SOT. Our observations of repeating abyssal T-waves in the Romanche and Chain transform faults could provide a valuable data set for understanding Equatorial Atlantic warming. Still, further investigations incorporating high-resolution bathymetry are warranted to better model abyssal T-waves for earthquake parameter estimation.

Abstract. The oceanic emission of dimethyl sulfide (DMS) plays a vital role in the Earth's climate system and constitutes a substantial source of uncertainty when evaluating aerosol radiative forcing. Currently, the widely used monthly climatology of sea surface DMS concentration falls short of meeting the requirement for accurately simulating DMS-derived aerosols with chemical transport models. Hence, there is an urgent need for a high-resolution, multi-year global sea surface DMS dataset. Here we develop an artificial neural network ensemble model that uses nine environmental factors as input features and captures the variability of the DMS concentration across different oceanic regions well. Subsequently, a global sea surface DMS concentration and flux dataset (1° × 1°) with daily resolution spanning from 1998 to 2017 is established. According to this dataset, the global annual average concentration was ∼ 1.71 nM, and the annual total emissions were ∼  17.2 Tg S yr⁻¹, with ∼ 60 % originating from the Southern Hemisphere. While overall seasonal variations are consistent with previous DMS climatologies, notable differences exist in regional-scale spatial distributions. The new dataset enables further investigations into daily and decadal variations. Throughout the period 1998-2017, the global annual average concentration exhibited a slight decrease, while total emissions showed no significant trend. The DMS flux from our dataset showed a stronger correlation with the observed atmospheric methanesulfonic acid concentration compared to those from previous monthly climatologies. Therefore, it can serve as an improved emission inventory of oceanic DMS and has the potential to enhance the simulation of DMS-derived aerosols and associated radiative effects. The new DMS gridded products are available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11879900 (Zhou et al., 2024).

The balance between particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) and particulate organic carbon (POC) holds significant importance in carbon storage within the ocean. A recent investigation delved into the spatial distribution of phytoplankton and the physiological mechanisms governing their growth. Employing random forests, a machine learning technique, this study unveiled apparent relationships between POC and 10 environmental fields. In this work, we extend the use of random forests to compare how observed PIC and POC respond to environmental conditions. PIC and POC exhibit similar responses to certain environmental drivers, suggesting that these do not explain differences in their distribution. However, PIC is less sensitive to iron and more sensitive to light and mixed layer depth. Intriguingly, both PIC and POC display weak sensitivity to CO₂, contrary to previous studies, possibly due to the elevated pCO₂ in our data set. This research sheds light on the underlying processes influencing carbon sequestration and ocean productivity.

Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) variability originates from a large number of interacting processes with multiple time scales, with dominant processes dependent on both the latitude and timescale of interest. Here, we isolate the optimal atmospheric modes driving climate-relevant decadal AMOC variability using a novel approach combining dynamical and statistical attribution (dynamics-weighted principal component, or DPC analysis). We find that for both the subpolar (55°N) and subtropical (25°N) AMOC, the most effective independent mode of heat flux forcing closely resembles the North Atlantic Oscillation, and drives meridionally coherent AMOC anomalies through western boundary density anomalies. Conversely, established modes of wind stress variability possess limited quantitative similarity to the optimal wind stress patterns, which generate low-frequency AMOC fluctuations by rearranging the ocean buoyancy field. We demonstrate (by running a modified version of the ECCOv4r4 state estimate) that most AMOC variability on decadal time scales can be explained by the DPCs.

Vertical migration and dispersal processes during the marine crab larval stage markedly affect transport, habitat selection, population connectivity, and resource replenishment success rates. However, not much is known of the reproductive ecology of swimming crabs in the nearshore waters of the northwest Pacific shelf. Here, we investigated the diel vertical migration (DVM) characteristics and transport patterns of the swimming crab zoea (Portunus trituberculatus) in this area. A Lagrangian particle-tracking algorithm coupled with a hydrodynamic model, incorporating a DVM pattern of zoeae based on observations from a field survey of the diurnal distribution of swimming crab zoea, was used to simulate the transport of zoeae, and the impact of zoeal transport on population connectivity was explored. The results revealed that particles were predominantly transported in a nearshore direction from the particle release point, with short dispersal distances during the zoeal stages. In nearshore waters on the continental shelf, the swimming crab zoeae are exposed to shoreward-moving currents with the aid of prolonged daytime locations in the lower water column, whereas larvae migrate upward to the middle and upper layers of the water column at night rather than the most superficial layer, potentially avoiding surface offshore-moving currents that may be responsible for the retention and shoreward transport of larvae. Most zoeae are transported to shallow waters, and the contribution of transport to population connectivity during the zoeal stages is relatively limited. The findings here have considerable implications for understanding the mechanisms governing the early recruitment dynamics of this species, as well as for fisheries management and conservation of marine biodiversity.

Greenland's marine-terminating glaciers connect the ice sheet to the ocean and provide a critical boundary where heat, freshwater, and nutrient exchanges take place. Buoyant freshwater runoff from inland ice sheet melt is discharged at the base of marine-terminating glaciers, forming vigorous upwelling plumes. It is understood that subglacial plumes modify waters near glacier fronts and increase submarine glacier melt by entraining warm ambient waters at depth. However, ocean observations along Greenland's coastal margins remain biased toward summer months which limits accurate estimation of ocean forcing on glacier retreat and acceleration. Here, we fill a key observational gap in northwest Greenland by describing seasonal hydrographic variation at glacier fronts in Melville Bay using in situ observations from moorings deployed year-round, CTDs, and profiling floats. We evaluated local and remote forcing using remote sensing and reanalysis data products alongside a high-resolution ocean model. Analysis of the year-round hydrographic data revealed consistent above-sill seasonality in temperature and salinity. The warmest, saltiest waters occurred in spring (April-May) and primed glaciers for enhanced submarine melt in summer when meltwater plumes entrain deep waters. Waters were coldest and freshest in early winter (November-December) after summer melt from sea ice, glacier ice, and icebergs provided cold freshwater along the shelf. Ocean variability was greatest in the summer and fall, coincident with increased freshwater runoff and large wind events before winter sea ice formation. Results increase our mechanistic understanding of Greenland ice-ocean interactions and enable improvements in ocean model parameterization.

Abstract. The ocean carbon sink plays a critical role in climate, absorbing anthropogenic carbon from the atmosphere and mitigating climate change. The sink shows significant variability on decadal timescales, but estimates from models and observations disagree with one another, raising uncertainty over the magnitude of the sink, its variability, and its driving mechanisms. There is a need to reconcile observation-based estimates of air-sea CO₂ fluxes with those of the changing ocean carbon inventory in order to improve our understanding of the sink, and doing so requires knowledge of how carbon is transported within the interior by the ocean circulation. Here we employ a recently developed optimal transformation method (OTM) that uses water-mass theory to relate interior changes in tracer distributions to transports and mixing and boundary forcings, and we extend its application to include carbon using synthetic data. We validate the method using model outputs from a biogeochemical state estimate, and we test its ability to recover boundary carbon fluxes and interior transports consistent with changes in heat, salt, and carbon. Our results show that the OTM effectively reconciles boundary carbon fluxes with interior carbon distributions when given a range of prior fluxes. The OTM shows considerable skill in its reconstructions, reducing root-mean-squared errors from biased priors between model "truth" and reconstructed boundary carbon fluxes by up to 71 %, with the bias of the reconstructions consistently ≤0.06 molCm^-2yr^-1 globally. Inter-basin transports of carbon also compare well with the model truth, with residuals <0.25 Pg C yr⁻¹ for reconstructions produced using a range of priors. The OTM has significant potential for application to reconcile observational estimates of air-sea CO₂ fluxes with the interior accumulation of anthropogenic carbon.

Motivated by the importance of mixing arising from dissipating internal waves (IWs), vertical profiles of internal-wave dissipation from a high-resolution regional ocean model are compared with finestructure estimates made from observations. A horizontal viscosity scheme restricted to only act on horizontally rotational modes (such as eddies) is introduced and tested. At lower resolutions with horizontal grid spacings of 2 km, the modeled IW dissipation from numerical model agrees reasonably well with observations in some cases when the restricted form of horizontal viscosity is used. This suggests the possibility that if restricted forms of horizontal viscosity are adopted by global models with similar resolutions, they could be used to diagnose and map IW dissipation distributions. At higher resolutions with horizontal grid spacings of ∼250 m, the dissipation from vertical shear and horizontal viscosity act much more strongly resulting in dissipation overestimates; however, the vertical-shear dissipation itself is found to agree well with observations.

Mesoscale currents account for 80% of the ocean's kinetic energy, whereas submesoscale currents capture 50% of the vertical velocity variance. SWOT's first sea surface height (SSH) observations have a spatial resolution an order of magnitude greater than traditional nadir-looking altimeters and capture mesoscale and submesoscale features. This enables the derivation of submesoscale vertical velocities, crucial for the vertical transport of heat, carbon and nutrients between the ocean interior and the surface. This work focuses on a mesoscale energetic region south of Tasmania using a coupled ocean-atmosphere simulation at km-scale resolution and preliminary SWOT SSH observations. Vertical velocities (w), temperature anomalies and vertical heat fluxes (VHF) from the surface down to 1,000 m are reconstructed using effective surface Quasi-Geostrophic (sQG) theory. An independent method for reconstructing temperature anomalies, mimicking an operational gridded product, is also developed. Results show that sQG reconstructs 90% of the modeled w and VHF rms at scales down to 30 km just below the mixed layer and 50%-70% of the rms for scales larger than 70 km at greater depth, with a spatial correlation of ~0.6. The reconstruction is spectrally coherent (>0.65) for scales larger than 30-40 km at the surface, slightly degrading (~0.55) at depth. Two temperature anomaly data sets yield similar results, indicating the dominance of w on VHF. The RMS of sQG and VHF derived from SWOT are twice as large as those derived from conventional altimetry, highlighting the potential of SWOT for reconstructing energetic meso and submesoscale dynamics in the ocean interior.

In this study, we conducted a novel massive Lagrangian simulation experiment based on a global 1/48° tide-resolving numerical simulation of the ocean circulation. This first-time twin experiment enables a comparison between Eulerian (fixed-point) and Lagrangian (along-flow) estimates of kinetic energy (KE) across the global ocean, and the quantification of systematic differences between both types of estimations. This comparison represents an important step forward for the mapping of upper ocean high-frequency variability from Lagrangian observations of the Global Drifter Program. Eulerian KE rotary frequency spectra and band-integrated energy levels (e.g., tidal and near-inertial) serve as references and are compared to Lagrangian estimates. Our analysis reveals that, except for the near-inertial band, Lagrangian velocity spectra are systematically smoother, for example, with wider and lower spectral peaks compared to Eulerian counterparts. On average, Lagrangian KE levels derived from spectral band integrations tend to underestimate Eulerian KE levels at low-frequency and tidal bands, especially in regions with strong low-frequency KE. Better agreement between Lagrangian and Eulerian low-frequency and tidal KE levels is generally found in regions with weak low-frequency KE and/or convergent surface circulation, where Lagrangian particles tend to accumulate. Conversely, Lagrangian and Eulerian near-inertial spectra and energy levels are comparable. Our results demonstrate that Lagrangian estimates may provide a distorted view of low-frequency and tidal variance. To accurately map near-surface velocity climatology at these frequencies from drifter database, conversion methods accounting for the Lagrangian bias need to be developed.

Using a suite of coupled climate models and an extensive set of ocean heat budget diagnostics, we address the relative roles of heat convergence and surface heat flux in driving the annual rate of ocean heat content (OHC) change in the tropical Pacific and its interannual variability. The net heat convergence is further separated into convergences associated with the large-scale ocean circulation, (parameterized) mesoscale effects and small-scale mixing. It is found that the heat convergence due to the large-scale ocean circulation provides the dominant contribution to the annual OHC tendency. Interannual variations of heat convergence are larger in the tropical Pacific than in the tropical Atlantic. These heat convergence variations are linked to interannual variations of the Pacific meridional overturning circulation (PMOC), driven by the associated variations in the northward Ekman transport (EkT). Northward variations of the tropical PMOC and EkT are typically associated with heat divergence and negative annual OHC tendency in the central and eastern near-equatorial Pacific along with heat convergence and positive annual OHC tendency in the western and northwestern tropical Pacific. In the Niño3.4 region, interannual variations of the near-surface OHC tendency negatively (positively) correlate with interannual PMOC variations at zero lag (1 year lag, when PMOC leads OHC).

Global mean sea level has been rising at a rate of 3.25 ± 0.4 mm yr⁻¹ over 1993-2018. Yet several regions are increasing at a much faster rate, such as the Beaufort Gyre in the Arctic Ocean at a rate of 9.3 ± 7.0 mm yr⁻¹ over 2003-2014. At interannual to decadal time scales, the Beaufort Gyre sea level is controlled by salinity changes due to sea ice melt and wind-driven lateral Ekman convergence-divergence of freshwater. This study uses recent Greenland discharge and river runoff estimates to isolate and quantify the sea level response to freshwater fluxes variability over the period 1980-2018. It relies on sensitivity experiments based on a global ocean model including sea-ice and icebergs. These sensitivity experiments only differ by the freshwater fluxes temporal variability of Greenland and global rivers which are either seasonal climatologies or fully time varying, revealing the individual and combined impact of these freshwater sources fluctuations. Fully varying Greenland discharge and river runoff produce an opposite impact on sea level trends over 2005-2018 in the Beaufort Gyre region, the former driving an increase, while the latter, a decrease. Their combined impact leads to a fairly weak sea level trend. The sea level response is primarily driven by salinity variations in the upper 300 m, which are mainly caused by salinity advection involving complex compensations between passive, active, and nonlinear advection. This study shows that including the temporal variability of freshwater fluxes in forced global ocean models results in a better representation of regional sea level change.

The upper ocean salinity in the eastern subpolar North Atlantic undergoes decadal fluctuations. A large fresh anomaly event occurred during 2012-2016. Using the ECCOv4r4 state estimate, we diagnose and compare mechanisms of this low salinity event with those of the 1990s fresh anomaly event. To avoid issues related to the choice of reference salinity values in the freshwater budget, we perform a salt mass content budget analysis of the eastern subpolar North Atlantic. It shows that the recent low salt content anomaly occurs due to the circulation of anomalous salinity by mean currents entering the eastern subpolar basin from its western boundary via the North Atlantic Current. This is in contrast to the early 1990s, when the dominant mechanism governing the low salt content anomaly was the transport of the mean salinity field by anomalous currents.

Generally, sea ice prediction skills can be improved by assimilating available observations of the sea ice concentration (SIC) and sea ice thickness (SIT) into a numerical forecast model to update the initial conditions. However, due to inadequate daily SIT satellite observations in the Arctic melting season, the SIC fields in forecast models are usually directly updated, which causes mismatch of SIC and SIT in dynamics and affects the model prediction accuracy. In this study, a statistically based bivariate regression model of SIT (BRMT) is tentatively established based on the grid reanalysis data of SIC and SIT to reconstruct daily Arctic SIT data. The results show that the BRMT can reproduce the spatial and temporal changes in the SIT in the melting season and capture the variation trend of SIT in some periods. Compared with the SIT observations from buoy and satellite, the reconstructed SIT shows better performance in the central Arctic than other datasets. Furthermore, when the reconstructed SIT is added to the forecast model with only assimilated SIC, the forecast accuracy of SIC, sea ice extent, and SIT in the Arctic melting season is improved and does not weaken with the increase in the forecast time. Especially in the central Arctic, the average absolute deviation between 24-h SIT forecast results and observations is only 0.16 m. The results indicate great potential for applying the reconstructed SIT to the operational forecast of Arctic sea ice during the melting season in the future.

Satellite-based observations and a pan-Arctic coupled sea ice-ocean model are utilized to study the effect of ocean geostrophic currents on large-scale sea ice circulation in the Canada Basin, Arctic Ocean. We find that surface winds primarily drive sea ice drifts in the west-east direction, while the geostrophic currents in the Beaufort Gyre promote north-south ice drifts. Wind fluctuations can create variable ice drifts, yet geostrophic currents respond more slowly due to their larger vertical scale, serving as a slowly-evolving conveyor belt for maintaining the anticyclonic ice circulation. It is further demonstrated that the bathymetry can regulate the movement of sea ice via constraining the expansion of ocean circulation. This mechanism is indirect in the sense that the ice is far from the seafloor. Our research underscores the necessity of considering the bathymetry-constrained geostrophic currents in understanding Arctic sea ice dynamics. With the rapid retreat of Arctic sea ice, the multi-scale interactions between ice drifts and ocean currents may have significant implications for the Arctic ecosystem, climate, and shipping corridors.

Nitrous oxide (N₂O) is a greenhouse gas and stratospheric ozone-depleting substance with large and growing anthropogenic emissions. Previous studies identified the influx of N₂O-depleted air from the stratosphere to partly cause the seasonality in tropospheric N₂O (aN₂O), but other contributions remain unclear. Here, we combine surface fluxes from eight land and four ocean models from phase 2 of the Nitrogen/N₂O Model Intercomparison Project with tropospheric transport modeling to simulate aN₂O at eight remote air sampling sites for modern and pre-industrial periods. Models show general agreement on the seasonal phasing of zonal-average N₂O fluxes for most sites, but seasonal peak-to-peak amplitudes differ several-fold across models. The modeled seasonal amplitude of surface aN₂O ranges from 0.25 to 0.80 ppb (interquartile ranges 21%-52% of median) for land, 0.14-0.25 ppb (17%-68%) for ocean, and 0.28-0.77 ppb (23%-52%) for combined flux contributions. The observed seasonal amplitude ranges from 0.34 to 1.08 ppb for these sites. The stratospheric contributions to aN₂O, inferred by the difference between the surface-troposphere model and observations, show 16%-126% larger amplitudes and minima delayed by ∼1 month compared to Northern Hemisphere site observations. Land fluxes and their seasonal amplitude have increased since the pre-industrial era and are projected to grow further under anthropogenic activities. Our results demonstrate the increasing importance of land fluxes for aN₂O seasonality. Considering the large model spread, in situ aN₂O observations and atmospheric transport-chemistry models will provide opportunities for constraining terrestrial and oceanic biosphere models, critical for projecting carbon-nitrogen cycles under ongoing global warming.

While much attention has been paid to the climatic controls of species' range limits, other factors such as dispersal limitation are also important. Temperature is an important control of the distribution of coastal mangrove forests, and mangrove expansion at multiple poleward range limits has been linked to increasing temperatures. However, mangrove abundances at other poleward range limits have been surprisingly insensitive to climate change, indicating other drivers of range limitation. For example, along the west coast of North America, the poleward mangrove range limits are found on the Baja California and mainland coasts of Mexico, between 26°48' and 30°18'N. Non-climatic factors may play an important role in setting these range limits as 1) the abundance of range limit populations has been relatively insensitive to climate variability and 2) an introduced population of mangroves has persisted hundreds of kilometers north of the natural range limits. We combined a species distribution model with a high-resolution oceanographic transport model to identify the roles of climate and dispersal limitation in controlling mangrove distributions. We identified estuarine habitat that is likely climatically suitable for mangroves north of the current range limits. However, propagules from current mangrove populations are unlikely to reach these suitable locations due to prevailing ocean currents and geomorphic factors that create a patchy distribution of estuarine habitat with large between-patch distances. Thus, although climate change is driving range shifts of mangroves in multiple regions around the world, dispersal is currently limiting poleward mangrove expansion at several range limits, including the west coast of North America.

We revisit the nature of the ocean bottom pressure (p_b) seasonal cycle by leveraging the mounting GRACE-based p_b record and its assimilation in the ocean state estimates produced by the project for Estimating the Circulation and Climate of the Ocean (ECCO). We focus on the mean seasonal cycle from both data and ECCO estimates, examining their similarities and differences and exploring the underlying causes. Despite substantial year-to-year variability, the 21-year period studied (2002-2022) provides a relatively robust estimate of the mean seasonal cycle. Results indicate that the p_b annual harmonic tends to dominate but the semi-annual harmonic can also be important (e.g., subpolar North Pacific, Bellingshausen Basin). Amplitudes and short-scale phase variability are enhanced near coasts and continental shelves, emphasizing the importance of bottom topography in shaping the seasonal cycle in p_b. Comparisons of GRACE and ECCO estimates indicate good qualitative agreement, but considerable quantitative differences remain in many areas. The GRACE amplitudes tend to be higher than those of ECCO typically by 10%-50%, and by more than 50% in extensive regions, particularly around continental boundaries. Phase differences of more than 1 (0.5) months for the annual (semiannual) harmonics are also apparent. Larger differences near coastal regions can be related to enhanced GRACE data uncertainties and also to the absence of gravitational attraction and loading effects in ECCO. Improvements in both data and model-based estimates are still needed to narrow present uncertainties in p_b estimates.

Midlatitude SSTs forced by mesoscale oceanic processes can affect the large-scale atmosphere, pointing to the ocean's crucial role outside the tropics. Previous studies have shown oceanic mesoscale processes' effect on global and regional climate variability. This study quantifies the local contribution of ocean dynamics to mixed-layer temperature across the globe by directly estimating the ocean heat flux divergence resolved by state-of-the-art ocean reanalysis, eddy-resolving, and eddy-parameterized versions of two US national climate models and indirectly from air-sea flux satellite-based estimates. Our results show that the eddy-resolving climate simulations resolve mixed-layer temperature variances that are larger and closer to those inferred from observations than both their eddy-parameterized counterparts and ECCO over much of the extratropics. The observations and the eddy-resolving models indicate a more significant role of ocean dynamics in the mixed layer temperature variability than the surface fluxes over most extratropics compared to their eddy-parameterized versions. A frequency domain analysis shows that the better-resolved ocean mesoscale and thermal gradients enhance the variance over timescale from two months to thirty years. Results show agreement in the ocean's contribution among satellite-based estimates, ocean reanalysis products, and ocean eddy-resolving simulations. At the same time, differences emerge for ECCO and the eddy-parameterized models, suggesting that surface fluxes account for a larger fraction of the mixed layer temperature variability in most of the extratropics.

Future projections of Arctic and Antarctic sea ice suffer from uncertainties largely associated with inter-model spread. Ocean heat transport has been hypothesised as a source of this uncertainty, based on correlations with sea ice extent across climate models. However, a physical explanation of what sets the sea ice sensitivity to ocean heat transport remains to be uncovered. Here, we derive a simple equation using an idealised energy-balance model that captures the emergent relationship between ocean heat transport and sea ice in climate models. Inter-model spread of Arctic sea ice loss depends strongly on the spread in ocean heat transport, with a sensitivity set by compensation of atmospheric heat transport and radiative feedbacks. Southern Ocean heat transport exhibits a comparatively weak relationship with Antarctic sea ice and plays a passive role secondary to atmospheric heat transport. Our results suggest that addressing ocean model biases will substantially reduce uncertainty in projections of Arctic sea ice.

Earth's energy imbalance (EEI) is a fundamental metric of global Earth system change, quantifying the cumulative impact of natural and anthropogenic radiative forcings and feedback. To date, the most precise measurements of EEI change are obtained through radiometric observations at the top of the atmosphere (TOA), while the quantification of EEI absolute magnitude is facilitated through heat inventory analysis, where ~ 90% of heat uptake manifests as an increase in ocean heat content (OHC). Various international groups provide OHC datasets derived from in situ and satellite observations, as well as from reanalyses ingesting many available observations. The WCRP formed the GEWEX-EEI Assessment Working Group to better understand discrepancies, uncertainties and reconcile current knowledge of EEI magnitude, variability and trends. Here, 21 OHC datasets and ocean heat uptake (OHU) rates are intercompared, providing OHU estimates ranging between 0.40 ± 0.12 and 0.96 ± 0.08 W m⁻² (2005-2019), a spread that is slightly reduced when unequal ocean sampling is accounted for, and that is largely attributable to differing source data, mapping methods and quality control procedures. The rate of increase in OHU varies substantially between − 0.03 ± 0.13 (reanalysis product) and 1.1 ± 0.6 W m⁻²  dec ⁻¹ (satellite product). Products that either more regularly observe (satellites) or fill in situ data-sparse regions based on additional physical knowledge (some reanalysis and hybrid products) tend to track radiometric EEI variability better than purely in situ-based OHC products. This paper also examines zonal trends in TOA radiative fluxes and the impact of data gaps on trend estimates. The GEWEX-EEI community aims to refine their assessment studies, to forge a path toward best practices, e.g., in uncertainty quantification, and to formulate recommendations for future activities.

Scarcity of iron and manganese limits the efficiency of the biological carbon pump over large areas of the Southern Ocean. The importance of hydrothermal vents as a source of these micronutrients to the euphotic zone of the Southern Ocean is debated. Here we present full depth profiles of dissolved and total dissolvable trace metals in the remote eastern Pacific sector of the Southern Ocean (55-60^o S, 89.1^o W), providing evidence of enrichment of iron and manganese at depths of 2000-4000 m. These enhanced micronutrient concentrations were co-located with ³He enrichment, an indicator of hydrothermal fluid originating from ocean ridges. Modelled water trajectories revealed the understudied South East Pacific Rise and the Pacific Antarctic Ridge as likely source regions. Additionally, the trajectories demonstrate pathways for these Southern Ocean hydrothermal ridge-derived trace metals to reach the Southern Ocean surface mixed layer within two decades, potentially supporting a regular supply of micronutrients to fuel Southern Ocean primary production.

The Spring Predictability Barrier (SPB) phenomenon is characterized by the reduced accuracy of El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) forecasts during the spring, which substantially limits our ability to predict ENSO events. By investigating the nonlinear dynamic characteristics of ENSO systems simulated by a box model, we found that the strong surface heating process in spring may contribute to the SPB by regulating the different coupling processes between the ocean and atmosphere. Specifically, the intensified springtime surface heating increases the Sea Surface Temperature (SST), further amplifying the thermal damping effect of SST anomalies and reducing the dynamic connection between zonal SST gradient and upwelling process, and finally increasing the chaotic degree of ENSO systems simulated by the box model. The enhanced chaotic degree of ENSO systems leads to a more rapid growth of initial errors in the forecast model in spring, potentially leading to the SPB phenomenon.

Current eddy-permitting and eddy-resolving ocean models require dissipation to prevent a spurious accumulation of enstrophy at the grid scale. We introduce a new numerical scheme for momentum advection in large-scale ocean models that involves upwinding through a weighted essentially non-oscillatory (WENO) reconstruction. The new scheme provides implicit dissipation and thereby avoids the need for an additional explicit dissipation that may require calibration of unknown parameters. This approach uses the rotational, "vector invariant" formulation of the momentum advection operator that is widely employed by global general circulation models. A novel formulation of the WENO "smoothness indicators" is key for avoiding excessive numerical dissipation of kinetic energy and enstrophy at grid-resolved scales. We test the new advection scheme against a standard approach that combines explicit dissipation with a dispersive discretization of the rotational advection operator in two scenarios: (a) two-dimensional turbulence and (b) three-dimensional baroclinic equilibration. In both cases, the solutions are stable, free from dispersive artifacts, and achieve increased "effective" resolution compared to other approaches commonly used in ocean models.

Anthropogenic perturbations from fossil fuel burning, nuclear bomb testing, and chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) use have created useful transient tracers of ocean circulation. The atmospheric ¹⁴C/C ratio (Δ¹⁴C) peaked in the early 1960s and has decreased now to pre-industrial levels, while atmospheric CFC-11 and CFC-12 concentrations peaked in the early 1990s and early 2000s, respectively, and have now decreased by 10%-20%. We present the first analysis of a decade of new observations (2007 to 2018-2019) and give a comprehensive overview of the changes in ocean Δ¹⁴C and CFC concentration since the WOCE surveys in the 1990s. Surface ocean Δ¹⁴C decreased at a nearly constant rate from the 1990-2010s (20‰/decade). In most of the surface ocean Δ¹⁴C is higher than in atmospheric CO₂ while in the interior ocean, only a few places are found to have increases in Δ¹⁴C, indicating that globally, oceanic bomb ¹⁴C uptake has stopped and reversed. Decreases in surface ocean CFC-11 started between the 1990 and 2000s, and CFC-12 between the 2000-2010s. Strong coherence in model biases of decadal changes in all tracers in the Southern Ocean suggest ventilation of Antarctic Intermediate Water was enhanced from the 1990 to the 2000s, whereas ventilation of Subantarctic Mode Water was enhanced from the 2000 to the 2010s. The decrease in surface tracers globally between the 2000 and 2010s is consistently stronger in observations than in models, indicating a reduction in vertical transport and mixing due to stratification.

El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is the leading mode of interannual ocean-atmosphere coupling in the tropical Pacific, greatly influencing the global climate system. Seasonal phase locking, which means that ENSO events usually peak in boreal winter, is a distinctive feature of ENSO. In model future projections, the ENSO sea surface temperature (SST) amplitude in winter shows no significant change with a large intermodel spread. However, whether and how ENSO phase locking will respond to global warming are not fully understood. In this study, using CESM large ensemble (CESM-LE) projections, we found that the seasonality of ENSO events, especially its peak phase, has advanced under global warming. This phenomenon corresponds to the seasonal difference in the changes in the ENSO SST amplitude with an enhanced (weakened) amplitude from boreal summer to autumn (winter). Mixed layer ocean heat budget analysis revealed that the advanced ENSO seasonality is due to intensified positive meridional advective and thermocline feedback during the ENSO developing phase, and intensified negative thermal damping during the ENSO peak phase. Furthermore, the seasonal variation in the mean El Niño-like SST warming in the tropical Pacific favors a weakened zonal advective feedback in boreal autumn-winter and earlier decay of ENSO. The advance of the ENSO peak phase is also found in most CMIP5/6 models that simulate the seasonal phase locking of ENSO well in the present climate. Thus, even though the amplitude response in the winter shows no model consensus, ENSO also significantly changes during different stages under global warming.

Accurate Arctic sea-ice forecasting for the melt season is still a major challenge because of the lack of reliable pan-Arctic summer sea-ice thickness (SIT) data. A new summer CryoSat-2 SIT observation data set based on an artificial intelligence algorithm may alleviate this situation. We assess the impact of this new data set on the initialization of sea-ice forecasts in the melt seasons of 2015 and 2016 in a coupled sea ice-ocean model with data assimilation. We find that the assimilation of the summer CryoSat-2 SIT observations can reduce the summer ice-edge forecast error. Further, adding SIT observations to an established forecast system with sea-ice concentration assimilation leads to more realistic short-term summer ice-edge forecasts in the Arctic Pacific sector. The long-term Arctic-wide SIT prediction is also improved. In spite of remaining uncertainties, summer CryoSat-2 SIT observations have the potential to improve Arctic sea-ice forecast on multiple time scales.

This study characterized ocean biological carbon pump metrics in the second iteration of the REgional Carbon Cycle Assessment and Processes (RECCAP2) project. The analysis here focused on comparisons of global and biome-scale regional patterns in particulate organic carbon (POC) production and sinking flux from the RECCAP2 ocean biogeochemical model ensemble against observational products derived from satellite remote sensing, sediment traps, and geochemical methods. There was generally good model-data agreement in mean large-scale spatial patterns, but with substantial spread across the model ensemble and observational products. The global-integrated, model ensemble-mean export production, taken as the sinking POC flux at 100 m (6.08 ± 1.17 PgC yr⁻¹), and export ratio defined as sinking flux divided by net primary production (0.154 ± 0.026) both fell at the lower end of observational estimates. Comparison with observational constraints also suggested that the model ensemble may have underestimated regional biological CO₂ drawdown and air-sea CO₂ flux in high productivity regions. Reasonable model-data agreement was found for global-integrated, ensemble-mean sinking POC flux into the deep ocean at 1,000 m (0.65 ± 0.24 PgC yr⁻¹) and the transfer efficiency defined as flux at 1,000 m divided by flux at 100 m (0.122 ± 0.041), with both variables exhibiting considerable regional variability. The RECCAP2 analysis presents standard ocean biological carbon pump metrics for assessing biogeochemical model skill, metrics that are crucial for further modeling efforts to resolve remaining uncertainties involving system-level interactions between ocean physics and biogeochemistry.

Nitrous oxide (N₂O) is a long-lived potent greenhouse gas and stratospheric ozone-depleting substance that has been accumulating in the atmosphere since the preindustrial period. The mole fraction of atmospheric N₂O has increased by nearly 25 % from 270 ppb (parts per billion) in 1750 to 336 ppb in 2022, with the fastest annual growth rate since 1980 of more than 1.3 ppb yr^-1 in both 2020 and 2021. According to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC AR6), the relative contribution of N₂O to the total enhanced effective radiative forcing of greenhouse gases was 6.4 % for 1750-2022. As a core component of our global greenhouse gas assessments coordinated by the Global Carbon Project (GCP), our global N₂O budget incorporates both natural and anthropogenic sources and sinks and accounts for the interactions between nitrogen additions and the biogeochemical processes that control N₂O emissions. We use bottom-up (BU: inventory, statistical extrapolation of flux measurements, and process-based land and ocean modeling) and top-down (TD: atmospheric measurement-based inversion) approaches. We provide a comprehensive quantification of global N₂O sources and sinks in 21 natural and anthropogenic categories in 18 regions between 1980 and 2020. We estimate that total annual anthropogenic N₂O emissions have increased 40% (or 1.9 Tg N yr^-1) in the past 4 decades (1980-2020). Direct agricultural emissions in 2020 (3.9 Tg N yr^-1, best estimate) represent the large majority of anthropogenic emissions, followed by other direct anthropogenic sources, including fossil fuel and industry, waste and wastewater, and biomass burning (2.1 Tg N yr), and indirect anthropogenic sources (1.3 Tg N yr^-1) . For the year 2020, our best estimate of total BU emissions for natural and anthropogenic sources was 18.5 (lower-upper bounds: 10.6-27.0) Tg N yr^-1, close to our TD estimate of 17.0 (16.6-17.4) Tg N yr^-1. For the 2010-2019 period, the annual BU decadal-average emissions for both natural and anthropogenic sources were 18.2 (10.6-25.9) Tg N yr^-1 and TD emissions were 17.4 (15.8-19.20) Tg N yr^-1. The once top emitter Europe has reduced its emissions by 31 % since the 1980s, while those of emerging economies have grown, making China the top emitter since the 2010s. The observed atmospheric N₂O concentrations in recent years have exceeded projected levels under all scenarios in the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6), underscoring the importance of reducing anthropogenic N₂O emissions. To evaluate mitigation efforts and contribute to the Global Stocktake of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, we propose the establishment of a global network for monitoring and modeling N₂O from the surface through to the stratosphere. The data presented in this work can be downloaded from https://doi.org/10.18160/RQ8P-2Z4R (Tian et al., 2023).

The Kuroshio Loop Current (KLC) is an important form of Kuroshio intrusion into the northeastern South China Sea (NESCS), which has significant influences on dynamical and biogeochemical processes in the NESCS. Recent studies suggested that the KLC is a hot spot of submesoscale processes (submesoscales) with spatiotemporal scales of O(1-10) km and O(1-10) days, but submesoscales' roles in energy cascade and salt and heat transports remain obscure. Here, we investigate this issue through analyzing outputs from a 1/48° simulation. The kinetic energy exchange rate between submesoscale and larger-scale processes (KER) is overall positive in the KLC region, which suggests the dominance of forward cascade. The magnitude of KER is comparable with the temporal change rate of larger-scale kinetic energy in the upper 200 m. We also find that magnitude and direction of KER are closely associated with strain rate and horizontal divergence of background flows, respectively. In addition, the KLC region shows elevated submesoscale salinity and heat diffusivities with magnitudes reaching O(10²) m²  s⁻¹ . During the KLC period, horizontal mixing by submesoscales can transport 0.90 × 10¹³  kg salt and 0.71 × 10²⁰  J heat westward into the NESCS interior, which are an order of magnitude larger than those caused by the mesoscale eddy shedding from the KLC. These results suggest that submesoscales play important roles not only in energy cascade but also in salt and heat transports in the KLC region. Therefore, the roles of submesoscales should be taken into account when studying energy, salt, and heat budgets in the NESCS.

Clouds and other data artefacts frequently limit the retrieval of key variables from remotely sensed Earth observations. We train a natural language processing (NLP)-inspired algorithm with high-fidelity ocean simulations to accurately reconstruct masked or missing data in sea surface temperature (SST) fields-one of 54 essential climate variables identified by the Global Climate Observing System. We demonstrate that the resulting model, referred to as Enki, repeatedly outperforms previously adopted inpainting techniques by up to an order of magnitude in reconstruction error, while displaying exceptional performance even in circumstances where the majority of pixels are masked. Furthermore, experiments on real infrared sensor data with masked percentages of at least 40% show reconstruction errors of less than the known uncertainty of this sensor (root mean square error (RMSE) ≲0.1 K). We attribute Enki's success to the attentive nature of NLP combined with realistic SST model outputs-an approach that could be extended to other remotely sensed variables. This study demonstrates that systems built upon Enki-or other advanced systems like it-may therefore yield the optimal solution to mitigating masked pixels in in climate-critical ocean datasets sampling a rapidly changing Earth.

Turbulent mixing in the ocean exerts an important control on the rate and structure of the overturning circulation. However, the balance of processes underpinning this mixing is subject to significant uncertainties, limiting our understanding of the overturning's deep upwelling limb. Here, we investigate the hitherto primarily neglected role of tens of thousands of seamounts in sustaining deep-ocean upwelling. Dynamical theory indicates that seamounts may stir and mix deep waters by generating lee waves and topographic wake vortices. At low latitudes, stirring and mixing are predicted to be enhanced by a layered vortex regime in the wakes. Using three realistic regional simulations spanning equatorial to middle latitudes, we show that layered wake vortices and elevated mixing are widespread around seamounts. We identify scalings that relate mixing rate within seamount wakes to topographic and hydrographic parameters. We then apply such scalings to a global seamount dataset and an ocean climatology to show that seamount-generated mixing makes an important contribution to the upwelling of deep waters. Our work thus brings seamounts to the fore of the deep-ocean mixing problem and urges observational, theoretical, and modeling efforts toward incorporating the seamounts' mixing effects in conceptual and numerical ocean circulation models.

Land-ice flow in Antarctica has experienced multi-annual acceleration in response to increased rates of ice thinning, ice-shelf collapse and grounding-line retreat. Superimposed upon this trend, recent observations have revealed that land-ice flow in the Antarctic Peninsula exhibits seasonal velocity variability with distinct summertime speed-ups. The mechanism, or mechanisms, responsible for driving this seasonality are unconstrained at present, yet detailed, process-based understanding of such forcing will be important for accurately estimating Antarctica's future contributions to sea level. Here, we perform time-series analysis on an array of remotely sensed, modeled and reanalysis data sets to examine the influence of potential drivers of ice-flow seasonality in the Antarctic Peninsula. We show that both meltwater presence and ocean temperature act as statistically significant precursors to summertime ice-flow acceleration, although each elicits an ice-velocity response after a distinct lag, with the former prompting a more immediate response. Furthermore, we find that the timing and magnitude of these local drivers are influenced by large-scale climate phenomena, namely the Amundsen Sea Low and the El Niño Southern Oscillation, with the latter initiating an anomalous wintertime ice-flow acceleration event in 2016. This hitherto unidentified link between seasonal ice flow and large-scale climatic forcing may have important implications for ice discharge at and beyond the Antarctic Peninsula in the future, depending upon how the magnitude, frequency and duration of such climate phenomena evolve in a warming world.

The non-local model of mixing based on internal wave breaking, IDEMIX, is implemented as an enhancement of a turbulent kinetic energy closure model in three non-eddy resolving general circulation ocean models that differ in the discretization and choice of computational grids. In IDEMIX internal wave energy is generated by an energy flux resulting from near-inertial waves induced by wind forcing at the surface, and at the bottom, by an energy flux that parameterizes the transfer of energy between baroclinic and barotropic tides. In all model simulations with IDEMIX, the mixing work is increased compared to the reference solutions without IDEMIX, reaching values in better agreement with finestructure observations. Furthermore, the horizontal structure of the mixing work is more realistic as a consequence of the heterogeneous forcing functions. All models with IDEMIX simulate deeper thermocline depths related to stronger shallow overturning cells in the Indo-Pacific. In the North Atlantic, deeper mixed layers in simulations with IDEMIX are associated with an increased Atlantic overturning circulation and an increase of northward heat transports toward more realistic values. The response of the deep Indo-Pacific overturning circulation and the weak bottom cell of the Atlantic to the inclusion of IDEMIX is incoherent between the models, suggesting that additional unidentified processes and numerical mixing may confound the analysis. Applying different tidal forcing functions leads to simulation differences that are small compared to differences between the different models or between simulations with IDEMIX and without IDEMIX.

Abstract. The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) is a key component of the Earth's climate. However, there are few long time series of observations of the AMOC, and the study of the mechanisms driving its variability depends mainly on numerical simulations. Here, we use four ocean circulation estimates produced by different data-driven approaches of increasing complexity to analyse the seasonal to decadal variability of the subpolar AMOC across the Greenland-Portugal OVIDE (Observatoire de la Variabilité Interannuelle à DÉcennale) line since 1993. We decompose the MOC strength variability into a velocity-driven component due to circulation changes and a volume-driven component due to changes in the depth of the overturning maximum isopycnal. We show that the variance of the time series is dominated by seasonal variability, which is due to both seasonal variability in the volume of the AMOC limbs (linked to the seasonal cycle of density in the East Greenland Current) and to seasonal variability in the transport of the Eastern Boundary Current. The decadal variability of the subpolar AMOC is mainly caused by changes in velocity, which after the mid-2000s are partly offset by changes in the volume of the AMOC limbs. This compensation means that the decadal variability of the AMOC is weaker and therefore more difficult to detect than the decadal variability of its velocity-driven and volume-driven components, which is highlighted by the formalism that we propose.

By transporting warm and salty water poleward, the Gulf Stream system maintains a mild climate in northwestern Europe while also facilitating the dense water formation that feeds the deep ocean. The sensitivity of North Atlantic circulation to future greenhouse gas emissions seen in climate models has prompted an increasing effort to monitor the various ocean circulation components in recent decades. Here, we synthesize available ocean transport measurements from several observational programs in the North Atlantic and Nordic Seas, as well as an ocean state estimate (ECCOv4-r4), for an enhanced understanding of the Gulf Stream and its poleward extensions as an interconnected circulation system. We see limited coherent variability between the records on interannual timescales, highlighting the local oceanic response to atmospheric circulation patterns and variable recirculation timescales within the gyres. On decadal timescales, we find a weakening subtropical circulation between the mid-2000s and mid-2010s, while the inflow and circulation in the Nordic Seas remained stable. Differing decadal trends in the subtropics, subpolar North Atlantic, and Nordic Seas warrant caution in using observational records at a single latitude to infer large-scale circulation change.

Marine heatwaves (MHWs), prolonged periods of abnormally high sea temperature, have greater devastating impacts on marine ecosystem services and socioeconomic systems than gradual long-term ocean warming. Despite growing evidence of increases in MHW frequency, duration, and intensity, their interseasonal variations remain unclear. Using satellite-derived daily sea surface temperature (SST) data from 1982 to 2022, this work reveals a strong seasonality in MHWs. Typically, the highest cumulative intensity, characterizing total impacts on ecosystems, occurs during the local warm seasons in most oceans, leading to a significant interseasonal difference between warm and cold seasons. The interseasonal difference is predominantly driven by air-sea heat flux, rather than oceanic horizontal advection and vertical process. An increase in these interseasonal differences is observed in mid and high latitudes, with a significant increase in the warm season and a weaker trend in the cold season. In the Equatorial Pacific and Western Equatorial Indian Ocean, intense MHWs are primarily exacerbated by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), which also determines interseasonal variations in MHWs. Understanding the seasonality of MHWs can help better formulate corresponding policies to reduce economic and ecological losses caused by these events and can improve the accuracy of future predictions.

Abstract. Recent meta-analyses suggest that microzooplankton biomass density scales linearly with phytoplankton biomass density, suggesting a simple, general rule may underpin trophic structure in the global ocean. Here, we use a set of highly simplified food web models, solved within a global general circulation model, to examine the core drivers of linear predator-prey scaling. We examine a parallel food chain model which assumes microzooplankton grazers feed on distinct size classes of phytoplankton and contrast this with a diamond food web model allowing shared microzooplankton predation on a range of phytoplankton size classes. Within these two contrasting model structures, we also evaluate the impact of fixed vs. density-dependent microzooplankton mortality. We find that the observed relationship between microzooplankton predators and prey can be reproduced with density-dependent mortality on the highest predator, regardless of choices made about plankton food web structure. Our findings point to the importance of parameterizing mortality of the highest predator for simple food web models to recapitulate trophic structure in the global ocean.

The Multidisciplinary drifting Observatory for the Study of Arctic Climate (MOSAiC, 2019-2020), a year-long drift with the Arctic sea ice, has provided the scientific community with an unprecedented, multidisciplinary dataset from the Eurasian Arctic Ocean, covering high atmosphere to deep ocean across all seasons. However, the heterogeneity of data and the superposition of spatial and temporal variability, intrinsic to a drift campaign, complicate the interpretation of observations. In this study, we have compiled a quality-controlled physical hydrographic dataset with best spatio-temporal coverage and derived core parameters, including the mixed layer depth, heat fluxes over key layers, and friction velocity. We provide a comprehensive and accessible overview of the ocean conditions encountered along the MOSAiC drift, discuss their interdisciplinary implications, and compare common ocean climatologies to these new data. Our results indicate that, for the most part, ocean variability was dominated by regional rather than seasonal signals, carrying potentially strong implications for ocean biogeochemistry, ecology, sea ice, and even atmospheric conditions. Near-surface ocean properties were strongly influenced by the relative position of sampling, within or outside the river-water influenced Transpolar Drift, and seasonal warming and meltwater input. Ventilation down to the Atlantic Water layer in the Nansen Basin allowed for a stronger connectivity between subsurface heat and the sea ice and surface ocean via elevated upward heat fluxes. The Yermak Plateau and Fram Strait regions were characterized by heterogeneous water mass distributions, energetic ocean currents, and stronger lateral gradients in surface water properties in frontal regions. Together with the presented results and core parameters, we offer context for interdisciplinary research, fostering an improved understanding of the complex, coupled Arctic System.

In this study, we explore the mixed layer salinity (MLS) balance in the western Arctic Ocean based on the Arctic Subpolar gyre sTate Estimate (ASTE) results. The key components of the MLS budgets and their variabilities in response to the Beaufort Gyre (BG) spin-up are identified. Seasonally, the surface forcing (brine rejection plus freshwater input) is the most important dominant contributor to the MLS balance. On the other hand, the entrainment dominates the interannual variability of MLS tendency inside the BG, while the advection dominates that in the Beaufort Sea. The sensitivity test of increased river discharge revealed a greater role of the advection term, along with weakened contributions from the surface forcing and entrainment, in determining the interannual variability of MLS balance. In contrast, the seasonal variabilities remained largely unchanged. The Lagrangian particle tracking reveals that the majority of BG freshwater within the mixed layer exits through the Canadian Archipelago prior to the BG spin-up (2002-2006) and during its relaxation (2012-2017). We found a reduction in mixed layer freshwater sources from the external BG that could feed the gyre during its spin-up (2007-2011), with the major contributions coming from the Beaufort Sea and the BG region itself through Ekman convergence. The mixed layer freshwater pathways are similar in the two versions of ASTE, but with noticeable proportion changes with the increasing river discharge.

A large part of the variability in the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) and thus uncertainty in its estimates on interannual timescales comes from atmospheric synoptic eddies and mesoscale processes. In this study, a suite of experiments with a 1/12° regional configuration of the MITgcm is performed where low pass filtering is applied to surface wind forcing to investigate the impact of subsynoptic (< 2 days) and synoptic (2-10 days) atmospheric processes on the ocean circulation. Changes in the wind magnitude and hence the wind energy input in the region have a significant effect on the strength of the overturning; once this is accounted for, the magnitude of the overturning in all sensitivity experiments is very similar to that of the control run. Synoptic and subsynoptic variability in atmospheric winds reduce the surface heat loss in the Labrador Sea, resulting in anomalous advection of warm and salty waters into the Irminger Sea and lower upper ocean densities in the eastern subpolar North Atlantic. Other effects of high-frequency variability in surface winds on the AMOC are associated with changes in Ekman convergence in the midlatitudes. Synoptic and subsynoptic winds also impact the strength of the boundary currents and density structure in the subpolar North Atlantic. In the Labrador Sea, the overturning strength is more sensitive to the changes in density structure, whereas in the eastern subpolar North Atlantic, the role of density is comparable to that of the strength of the East Greenland Current.

The Surface Ocean CO₂ Atlas (SOCAT) of CO₂ fugacity (fCO₂) observations is a key resource supporting annual assessments of CO₂ uptake by the ocean and its side effects on the marine ecosystem. SOCAT data are usually released with a lag of up to 1.5 years which hampers timely quantification of recent variations of carbon fluxes between the Earth System components, not only with the ocean. This study uses a statistical ensemble approach to analyze fCO₂ with a latency of one month only based on the previous SOCAT release and a series of predictors. Results indicate a modest degradation in a retrospective prediction test for 2021-2022. The generated fCO₂ and fluxes for January-August 2023 show a progressive reduction in the Equatorial Pacific source following the La Niña retreat. A breaking-record decrease in the northeastern Atlantic CO₂ sink has been diagnosed on account of the marine heatwave event in June 2023.

An unprecedented marine heatwave (MHW) event occurred in the middle-high latitudes of the western North Pacific during the summer of 2022. We demonstrate that excessive precipitation thousands of kilometers away fuels this extreme MHW event in July 2022. In the upper atmosphere, a persistent atmospheric blocking system, forming over the MHW region, reduces cloud cover and increases shortwave radiation at the ocean surface, leading to high sea surface temperatures. Atmospheric perturbations induced by latent heat release from the extreme precipitation in the Indian summer monsoon region enhance this atmospheric blocking through the propagation of quasi-stationary Rossby waves. Our hypothesis is verified by using a numerical model that is forced with the observed atmospheric anomalous diabatic heating. This study sheds light on how a subtropical extreme event can fuel another extreme event at middle-high latitudes through an atmospheric teleconnection.

We investigate the use of atmospheric oxygen (O₂) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) measurements for the estimation of the fossil fuel component of atmospheric CO₂ in the UK. Atmospheric potential oxygen (APO) - a tracer that combines O₂ and CO₂, minimizing the influence of terrestrial biosphere fluxes - is simulated at three sites in the UK, two of which make APO measurements. We present a set of model experiments that estimate the sensitivity of APO simulations to key inputs: fluxes from the ocean, fossil fuel flux magnitude and distribution, the APO baseline, and the exchange ratio of O₂ to CO₂ fluxes from fossil fuel combustion and the terrestrial biosphere. To estimate the influence of uncertainties in ocean fluxes, we compare three ocean O₂ flux estimates from the NEMO-ERSEM, the ECCO-Darwin ocean model, and the Jena CarboScope (JC) APO inversion. The sensitivity of APO to fossil fuel emission magnitudes and to terrestrial biosphere and fossil fuel exchange ratios is investigated through Monte Carlo sampling within literature uncertainty ranges and by comparing different inventory estimates. We focus our model-data analysis on the year 2015 as ocean fluxes are not available for later years. As APO measurements are only available for one UK site at this time, our analysis focuses on the Weybourne station. Model-data comparisons for two additional UK sites (Heathfield and Ridge Hill) in 2021, using ocean flux climatologies, are presented in the Supplement. Of the factors that could potentially compromise simulated APO-derived fossil fuel CO₂ (ffCO₂) estimates, we find that the ocean O₂ flux estimate has the largest overall influence at the three sites in the UK. At times, this influence is comparable in magnitude to the contribution of simulated fossil fuel CO₂ to simulated APO. We find that simulations using different ocean fluxes differ from each other substantially. No single model estimate, or a model estimate that assumed zero ocean flux, provided a significantly closer fit than any other. Furthermore, the uncertainty in the ocean contribution to APO could lead to uncertainty in defining an appropriate regional background from the data. Our findings suggest that the contribution of non-terrestrial sources needs to be better accounted for in model simulations of APO in the UK to reduce the potential influence on inferred fossil fuel CO₂ using APO.

The Pine Island and Thwaites Ice Shelves (PIIS/TIS) in the Amundsen Sea are melting rapidly and impacting global sea levels. The thermocline depth (TD) variability, the interface between cold Winter Water and warm modified Circumpolar Deep Water (mCDW), at the PIIS/TIS front strongly correlates with basal melt rates, but the drivers of its interannual variability remain uncertain. Here, using an ocean model, we propose that the strength of the eastern Amundsen Sea on-shelf circulation primarily controls TD variability and consequent PIIS/TIS melt rates. The TD variability occurs because the on-shelf circulation meanders following the submarine glacial trough, creating vertical velocity through bottom Ekman dynamics. We suggest that a strong or weak ocean circulation, possibly linked to remote winds in the Bellingshausen Sea, generates corresponding changes in bottom Ekman convergence, which modulates mCDW upwelling and TD variability. We show that interannual variability of off-shelf zonal winds has a minor effect on ocean heat intrusion into PIIS/TIS cavities, contrary to the widely accepted concept.

The South China Sea (SCS) is the largest marginal sea in the northwestern Pacific, and it is known for its complex multiscale dynamic processes, including basin-scale circulations, mesoscale eddies, submesoscale processes (submesoscales), and small-scale internal gravity waves. Compared with dynamic processes of other scales, submesoscales are a relatively new dynamic concept; they have gained rapidly increasing attention in recent decades due to their uniquely important roles in oceanic dynamics and biogeochemistry. Considerable progress on submesoscales has been achieved by the SCS regional oceanography community due to improvements in observation and simulation capabilities in the past decade. This paper comprehensively reviews recent research advances on the dynamic aspects of submesoscales in the SCS, including submesoscale resolving/permitting observations and simulations; the general characteristics, spatiotemporal variations, and generation mechanisms of submesoscales; and the roles of submesoscales in energy cascade and vertical tracer transport and the associated parameterizations. The most important advances are as follows: (a) Novel submesoscale observations have been made in the SCS, such as through submesoscale and mesoscale nested mooring arrays. (b) Findings have shown that the spatiotemporal characteristics and generation mechanisms of submesoscales in the SCS are regionally dependent. (c) A generation mechanism called mixed transitional layer instability (MTI) was proposed, and its strength is significantly modulated by strain-induced frontogenesis. (d) A new parameterization of submesoscale vertical buoyancy flux was developed based on the mechanism of MTI modulated by frontogenesis. In addition to reviewing recent advances in this field, this paper presents research prospects on SCS submesoscales.

Along with the mean sea level rise due to climate change, the sea level exhibits natural variations at a large number of different time scales. One of the most important is the one linked with the seasonal cycle. In the Northern Hemisphere winter, the sea level is as much as 20 cm below its summer values in some locations. It is customary to associate these variations with the seasonal cycle of the sea surface net heat flux which drives an upper-ocean thermal expansion creating a positive steric sea level anomaly. Here, using a novel framework based on steric sea level variance budget applied to observations and to the Estimating the Circulation and Climate of the Ocean state estimate, we demonstrate that the steric sea level seasonal cycle amplitude results from a balance between the seasonal sea surface net heat flux and the oceanic advective processes. Moreover, for up to 50% of the ocean surface, surface heat fluxes act to damp the seasonal steric sea level cycle amplitude, which is instead forced by oceanic advection processes. We also show that eddies play an important role in damping the steric sea level seasonal cycle. Our study contributes to a better understanding of the steric sea level mechanisms which is crucial to ensure accurate and reliable climate projections.

Based on OFES outputs verified by mooring observations, the seasonal characteristics in the middepth (1,000-3,000 m) equatorial Pacific Ocean are investigated in detail. The seasonal upward-propagating signals, consisting of one positive and one negative anomaly, are identified at the equator. The harmonic analyses indicate that the seasonal variations in the middepth equatorial Pacific Ocean originate from the downward-propagating energy dominated by the first meridional modes of Rossby waves. The superposition of first and second baroclinic modes of Rossby waves could reproduce the seasonal variations. Furthermore, a series of superposition experiments show that the phase lag between the two modes needs to be in the range of 0 to π to cause upward phase propagation. It implies that the baroclinic modes in the seasonal variations may not be generated simultaneously so that the Rossby waves with specific phase lag can cause upward-propagating signals in the middepth equatorial Pacific Ocean. This new finding will enhance the understanding of seasonal variations in the middepth equatorial Pacific Ocean.

The South China Sea (SCS) is a semi-enclosed marginal sea linked to the broader oceans via various geographically constrained channels. Beneath the main thermocline depth, Luzon Strait is the only conduit for water-mass exchanges. Observations indicate a substantial seasonal variability in the inflow transport of deep water from the Pacific Ocean. This study aims to identify and examine key drivers for such seasonal changes. It is found that seasonal variability of the deep-water transport into the SCS is primarily driven by surface wind stress. An imbalance in wind-driven exchanges of surface water between the SCS and external seas demands compensational transports in subsurface layers so that the net volume transport into the SCS is conserved, resulting in seasonal variations in deep-water overflow. Changes in Karimata Strait exert a particularly influential impact on deep-water inflow, likely due to its unique position as the sole connecting channel across the Equator.

We explore historical variability in the volume of Labrador Sea Water (LSW) using ECCO, an ocean state estimate configuration of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology general circulation model (MITgcm). The model's adjoint, a linearization of the MITgcm, is set up to output the lagged sensitivity of the water mass volume to surface boundary conditions. This allows us to reconstruct the evolution of LSW volume over recent decades using historical surface wind stress, heat, and freshwater fluxes. Each of these boundary conditions contributes significantly to the LSW variability that we recover, but these impacts are associated with different geographical fingerprints and arise over a range of time lags. We show that the volume of LSW accumulated in the Labrador Sea exhibits a delayed response to surface wind stress and buoyancy forcing outside the convective interior of the Labrador Sea at important locations in the North Atlantic Ocean. In particular, patterns of wind and surface density anomalies can act as a "traffic controller" and regulate the North Atlantic Current's (NAC's) transport of warm and saline subtropical water masses that are precursors for the formation of LSW. This propensity for a delayed response of LSW to remote forcing allows us to predict a limited yet substantial and significant fraction of LSW variability at least 1 year into the future. Our analysis also enables us to attribute LSW variability to different boundary conditions and to gain insight into the major mechanisms that contribute to volume anomalies in this deep water mass. We point out the important role of key processes that promote the formation of LSW in both the Irminger and Labrador seas: buoyancy loss and preconditioning along the NAC pathway and in the Iceland Basin, the Irminger Sea, and the Nordic Seas.

The Southern Ocean hosts a winter deep mixing band (DMB) near the Antarctic Circumpolar Current's (ACC) northern boundary, playing a pivotal role in Subantarctic Mode Water formation. Here, we investigate what controls the presence and geographical extent of the DMB. Using observational data, we construct seasonal climatologies of surface buoyancy fluxes, Ekman buoyancy transport, and upper stratification. The strength of the upper-ocean stratification is determined using the columnar buoyancy index, defined as the buoyancy input necessary to produce a 250 m deep mixed layer. It is found that the DMB lies precisely where the autumn-winter buoyancy loss exceeds the columnar buoyancy found in late summer. The buoyancy loss decreases towards the south, while in the north the stratification is too strong to produce deep mixed layers. Although this threshold is also crossed in the Agulhas Current and East Australian Current regions, advection of buoyancy is able to stabilise the stratification. The Ekman buoyancy transport has a secondary impact on the DMB extent due to the compensating effects of temperature and salinity transports on buoyancy. Changes in surface temperature drive spatial variations in the thermal expansion coefficient (TEC). These TEC variations are necessary to explain the limited meridional extent of the DMB. We demonstrate this by comparing buoyancy budgets derived using varying TEC values with those derived using a constant TEC value. Reduced TEC in colder waters leads to decreased winter buoyancy loss south of the DMB, yet substantial heat loss persists. Lower TEC values also weaken the effect of temperature stratification, partially compensating for the effect of buoyancy loss damping. TEC modulation impacts both the DMB characteristics and its meridional extent.

The combination of taxa and size classes of phytoplankton that coexist at any location affects the structure of the marine food web and the magnitude of carbon fluxes to the deep ocean. But what controls the patterns of this community structure across environmental gradients remains unclear. Here, we focus on the North East Pacific Transition Zone, a ~10° region of latitude straddling warm, nutrient-poor subtropical and cold, nutrient-rich subpolar gyres. Data from three cruises to the region revealed intricate patterns of phytoplankton community structure: poleward increases in the number of cell size classes; increasing biomass of picoeukaryotes and diatoms; decreases in diazotrophs and Prochlorococcus; and both increases and decreases in Synechococcus. These patterns can only be partially explained by existing theories. Using data, theory, and numerical simulations, we show that the patterns of plankton distributions across the transition zone are the result of gradients in nutrient supply rates, which control a range of complex biotic interactions. We examine how interactions such as size-specific grazing, multiple trophic strategies, shared grazing between several phytoplankton size classes and heterotrophic bacteria, and competition for multiple resources can individually explain aspects of the observed community structure. However, it is the combination of all these interactions together that is needed to explain the bulk compositional patterns in phytoplankton across the North East Pacific Transition Zone. The synthesis of multiple mechanisms is essential for us to begin to understand the shaping of community structure over large environmental gradients.

Meridional heat transport induced by oceanic mesoscale eddies (EHT) plays a significant role in the heat budget of Southern Ocean (SO) but the decadal trends in EHT and its associated mechanisms are still obscure. Here, this scientific issue is investigated by combining concurrent satellite observations and Estimating the Circulation and Climate of the Ocean, Phase II (ECCO2) reanalysis data over the 24 years between 1993-2016. The results reveal that the surface EHT from both satellite and ECCO2 data consistently show decadal poleward increasing trends in the SO, particularly in the latitude band of Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC). In terms of average in the ACC band, the ECCO2-derived EHT over the upper 1000 m has a linear trend of 1.1×10⁻² PW per decade or 16% per decade compared with its time-mean value of 0.07 PW. Diagnostic analysis based on "mixing length" theory suggests that the decadal strengthening eddy kinetic energy (EKE) is the dominant mechanism for the increase of EHT in the SO. By performing energy budget analysis, we further find that the decadal increase of EKE is mainly caused by the strengthened baroclinic instability of large-scale circulation that converts more available potential energy to EKE. For the strengthened baroclinic instability in the SO, it is attributed to the increasing large-scale wind stress work on the large-scale circulation corresponding to the positive phase of Southern Annular Mode between 1993-2016. The decadal trends in EHT identified here may help understand decadal variations of heat storage and sea-ice extent in the SO.

In recent decades, the Greenland ice sheet has been losing mass through glacier retreat and ice flow acceleration. This mass loss is linked with variations in submarine melt, yet existing ocean models are either coarse global simulations focused on decadal-scale variability or fine-scale simulations for process-based investigations. Here, we unite these scales with a framework to downscale from a global state estimate (15 km) into a regional model (3 km) that resolves circulation on the continental shelf. We further downscale into a fjord-scale model (500 m) that resolves circulation inside fjords and quantifies melt. We demonstrate this approach in Scoresby Sund, East Greenland, and find that interannual variations in submarine melt at Daugaard-Jensen glacier induced by ocean temperature variability are consistent with the decadal changes in glacier ice dynamics. This study provides a framework by which coarse-resolution models can be refined to quantify glacier submarine melt for future ice sheet projections.

In the boreal spring of 2023, an extreme coastal El Niño struck the coastal regions of Peru and Ecuador, causing devastating rainfalls, flooding, and record dengue outbreaks. Observations and ocean model experiments reveal that northerly alongshore winds and westerly wind anomalies in the eastern equatorial Pacific, initially associated with a record-strong Madden-Julian Oscillation and cyclonic disturbance off Peru in March, drove the coastal warming through suppressed coastal upwelling and downwelling Kelvin waves. Atmospheric model simulations indicate that the coastal warming in turn favors the observed wind anomalies over the far eastern tropical Pacific by triggering atmospheric deep convection. This implies a positive feedback between the coastal warming and the winds, which further amplifies the coastal warming. In May, the seasonal background cooling precludes deep convection and the coastal Bjerknes feedback, leading to the weakening of the coastal El Niño. This coastal El Niño is rare but predictable at 1 month lead, which is useful to protect lives and properties.

Extracting balanced geostrophic motions (BM) from sea surface height (SSH) observations obtained by wide-swath altimetry holds great significance in enhancing our understanding of oceanic dynamic processes at submesoscale wavelength. However, SSH observations derived from wide-swath altimetry are characterized by high spatial resolution while relatively low temporal resolution, thereby posing challenges to extract the BM from a single SSH snapshot. To address this issue, this paper proposes a deep learning model called the BM-UBM Network, which takes an instantaneous SSH snapshot as input and outputs the projection corresponding to the BM. Training experiments are conducted both in the Gulf Stream and South China Sea, and three metrics are considered to diagnose model's outputs. The favorable results highlight the potential capability of the BM-UBM Network to process SSH measurements obtained by wide-swath altimetry.

The ice shelves in the Bellingshausen Sea are melting and thinning rapidly due to modified Circumpolar Deep Water (mCDW) intrusions carrying heat toward ice-shelf cavities. Observations are, however, sparse in time and space, and extensive model-data comparisons have never been possible. Here, using a circulation model of the region and ship-based observations, we show that the simulated water mass distributions in several troughs traversing mCDW inflows are in good agreement with observations, implying that our model has the skills to simulate hydrographic structures as well as on-shelf ocean circulations. It takes 7.9 and 11.7 months for mCDW to travel to the George VI Ice Shelf cavities through the Belgica and Marguerite troughs, respectively. Ice-shelf melting is mainly caused by mCDW intrusions along the Belgica and Marguerite troughs, with the heat transport through the former being ∼2.8 times larger than that through the latter. The mCDW intrusions toward the George VI Ice Shelf show little seasonal variability, while those toward the Venable Ice Shelf show seasonal variability, with higher velocities in summer likely caused by coastal trapped waves. We also conduct particle experiments tracking glacial meltwater. After 2 years of model integration, ∼33% of the released particles are located in the Amundsen Sea, supporting a linkage between Bellingshausen Sea ice-shelf meltwater and Amundsen Sea upper ocean hydrography.

Accurate estimation of changes in the global hydrological cycle over the historical record is important for model evaluation and understanding future trends. Freshwater flux trends cannot be accurately measured directly, so quantification of change often relies on ocean salinity trends. However, anthropogenic forcing has also induced ocean transport change, which imprints on salinity. We find that this ocean transport affects the surface salinity of the saltiest regions (the subtropics) while having little impact on the surface salinity in other parts of the globe. We present a method based on linear response theory which accounts for the regional impact of ocean circulation changes while estimating freshwater fluxes from ocean tracers. Testing on data from the Community Earth System Model large ensemble, we find that our method can recover the true amplification of freshwater fluxes, given thresholded statistical significance values for salinity trends. We apply the method to observations and conclude that from 1975-2019, the hydrological cycle has amplified by 5.04±1.27 % per degree Celsius of surface warming.

Temporal and spatial variations in the ocean surface mixed layer are important for the climate and ecological systems. During 1980-2019, the Southern Indian Ocean (SIO) mixed layer depth (MLD) displays a basin-wide shoaling trend that is absent in the other basins within 40°S-40°N. The SIO MLD shoaling is mostly prominent in austral winter with deep climatology MLD, substantially weakening the MLD seasonality. Moreover, the SIO MLD changes are primarily caused by a southward shift of the subtropical anticyclonic winds and hence ocean gyre, associated with a strengthening of the Southern Annular Mode, in recent decades for both winter and summer. However, the poleward-shifted subtropical ocean circulation preferentially shoals the SIO MLD in winter when the meridional MLD gradient is sharp but not in summer when the gradient is flat. This highlights the distinct subtropical MLD response to meridional mitigation in winds due to different background oceanic conditions across seasons.

Development of ocean measurement technologies can improve monitoring of the global Ocean Heat Content (OHC) and Heat Storage Rate (HSR) that serve as early-warning indices for climate-critical circulation processes such as the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation and provide real-time OHC assessments for tropical cyclone forecast models. This paper examines the potential of remotely measuring ocean temperature profiles using a simulated Brillouin lidar for calculating ocean HSR. A series of data analysis ('Nature') and Observational Systems Simulation Experiments (OSSEs) were carried out using 26 years (1992-2017) of daily mean temperature and salinity outputs from the ECCOv4r4 ocean circulation model. The focus of this study is to compare various OSSEs carried out to measure the HSR using a simulated Brillouin lidar against the HSR calculated from the ECCOv4r4 model results. Brillouin lidar simulations are used to predict the probability of detecting a return lidar signal under varying sampling strategies. Correlations were calculated for the difference between sampling strategies. These comparisons ignore the measurement errors inherent in a Brillouin lidar. Brillouin lidar technology and instruments are known to contain numerous, instrument-dependent errors and remain an engineering challenge. A significant decrease in the ability to measuring global ocean HSRs is a consequence of measuring ocean temperature from nadir-pointing instruments that can only take measurements along-track. Other sources of errors include the inability to fully profile ocean regions with deep mixed layers, such as the Southern Ocean and North Atlantic, and ocean regions with high light attenuation levels.

Subantarctic mode waters have low stratification and are formed through subduction from thick winter mixed layers in the Southern Ocean. To investigate how surface forcing affects the stratification in mode water formation regions in the Southern Ocean, a set of adjoint sensitivity experiments are conducted. The objective function is the annual-average stratification over the mode water formation region, which is evaluated from potential temperature and salinity adjoint sensitivity experiments. The analysis of impacts, from the product of sensitivities and forcing variability, identifies the separate effects of the wind stress, heat flux, and freshwater flux, revealing that the dominant control on stratification is from surface heat fluxes, as well as a smaller effect from zonal wind stress. The adjoint sensitivities of stratification to surface heat flux reveal a surprising change in sign over 2 years lead time: surface cooling leads to the expected initial local decrease in stratification, but there is a delayed response leading to an increase in stratification. This delayed response in stratification involves effective atmospheric damping of the surface thermal contribution, so that eventually the oppositely-signed advective haline contribution dominates. This two-phase response of stratification is found to hold over mode water formation regions in the South Indian and Southeast Pacific sectors of the Southern Ocean, where there are strong advective flows linked to the Antarctic Circumpolar Current.

Acoustic propagation in the Beaufort Sea is particularly sensitive to upper-ocean sound-speed structure due to the presence of a subsurface duct known as the Beaufort duct. Comparisons of acoustic predictions based on existing Arctic models with predictions based on in situ data collected by Seaglider vehicles in the summer of 2017 show differences in the strength, depth, and number of ducts, highlighting the importance of in situ data. These differences have a significant effect on the later, more intense portion of the acoustic time front referred to as reverse geometric dispersion, where lower-order modes arrive prior to the final cutoff.

Observation-based data reconstructions of global surface ocean carbonate system variables play an essential role in monitoring the recent status of ocean carbon uptake and ocean acidification, as well as their impacts on marine organisms and ecosystems. So far, ongoing efforts are directed towards exploring new approaches to describe the complete marine carbonate system and to better recover its fine-scale features. In this respect, our research activities within the Copernicus Marine Environment Monitoring Service (CMEMS) aim to develop a sustainable production chain of observation-derived global ocean carbonate system datasets at high space-time resolutions. As the start of the long-term objective, this study introduces a new global 0.25° monthly reconstruction, namely CMEMS-LSCE (Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environnement) for the period 1985-2021. The CMEMS-LSCE reconstruction derives datasets of six carbonate system variables, including surface ocean partial pressure of CO₂ (pCO₂), total alkalinity (AT), total dissolved inorganic carbon (CT), surface ocean pH, and saturation states with respect to aragonite (Ωar) and calcite (Ωca). Reconstructing pCO₂ relies on an ensemble of neural network models mapping gridded observation-based data provided by the Surface Ocean CO₂ ATlas (SOCAT). Surface ocean AT is estimated with a multiple-linear-regression approach, and the remaining carbonate variables are resolved by CO₂ system speciation given the reconstructed pCO₂ and AT; 1σ uncertainty associated with these estimates is also provided. Here, σ stands for either the ensemble standard deviation of pCO₂ estimates or the total uncertainty for each of the five other variables propagated through the processing chain with input data uncertainty. We demonstrate that the 0.25° resolution pCO₂ product outperforms a coarser spatial resolution (1°) thanks to higher data coverage nearshore and a better description of horizontal and temporal variations in pCO₂ across diverse ocean basins, particularly in the coastal-open-ocean continuum. Product qualification with observation-based data confirms reliable reconstructions with root-mean-square deviation from observations of less than 8 %, 4 %, and 1 % relative to the global mean of pCO₂, AT (CT), and pH. The global average 1σ uncertainty is below 5 % and 8 % for pCO₂ and Ωar (Ωca), 2 % for AT and CT, and 0.4 % for pH relative to their global mean values. Both model-observation misfit and model uncertainty indicate that coastal data reproduction still needs further improvement, wherein high temporal and horizontal gradients of carbonate variables and representative uncertainty from data sampling would be taken into account as a priority. This study also presents a potential use case of the CMEMS-LSCE carbonate data product in tracking the recent state of ocean acidification. The data associated with this study are available at https://doi.org/10.14768/a2f0891b-763a-49e9-af1b-78ed78b16982 (Chau et al., 2023).

Melting of ice shelves can energize a wide range of ocean currents, from three-dimensional turbulence to relatively large-scale boundary currents. Here, we conduct high-resolution simulations of the western Amundsen Sea to show that submesoscale eddies are prevalent inside ice shelf cavities. The simulations indicate energetic submesoscale eddies at the top and bottom ocean boundary layers, regions with sharp topographic slopes and strong lateral buoyancy gradients. These eddies play a substantial role in the vertical and lateral (along-isopycnal) heat advection toward the ice shelf base, enhancing the basal melting in all simulated cavities. In turn, the meltwater provides strong buoyancy gradients that energize the submesoscale variability, forming a positive loop that could affect the overall efficiency of heat exchange between the ocean and the ice shelf cavity. Our study implies that submesoscale-induced enhancement of basal melting may be a ubiquitous process that needs to be parameterized in coarse-resolution climate models.

We investigate the interaction between an anticyclonic eddy (AE) and semidiurnal internal tide (SIT) on the continental slope of the northeastern South China Sea (SCS), using a high spatiotemporal resolution numerical model. Two key findings are as follows: first, the AE promotes energy conversion from low-mode to higher-mode SIT. Additionally, production terms indicate that energy is also transferred from the SIT field to the eddy field at an average rate of 3.0 mW m⁻² (accounting for 7 % of the incoming energy flux of SIT when integrated over the eddy diameter). Second, the AE can modify the spatial distribution of tidal-induced dissipation by refracting, scattering, and reflecting low-mode SIT. The phase and group velocities of the SIT are significantly influenced by the eddy field, resulting in a northward or southward shift in the internal tidal rays. These findings deepen our understanding of the complex interactions between AE and SIT, as well as their impacts on energy conversion, wave propagation, and coastal processes.

Seismic ocean thermometry uses sound waves generated by repeating earthquakes to measure temperature change in the deep ocean. In this study, waves generated by earthquakes along the Japan Trench and received at Wake Island are used to constrain temperature variations in the Kuroshio Extension region. This region is characterized by energetic mesoscale eddies and large decadal variability, posing a challenging sampling problem for conventional ocean observations. The seismic measurements are obtained from a hydrophone station off and a seismic station on Wake Island, with the seismic station's digital record reaching back to 1997. These measurements are combined in an inversion for the time and azimuth dependence of the range-averaged deep temperatures, revealing lateral and temporal variations due to Kuroshio Extension meanders, mesoscale eddies, and decadal water mass displacements. These results highlight the potential of seismic ocean thermometry for better constraining the variability and trends in deep-ocean temperatures. By overcoming the aliasing problem of point measurements, these measurements complement existing ship- and float-based hydrographic measurements.

During the summer of 2016, the northern East China Sea and the southern Yellow Sea (NECS-SYS) experienced one of the most severe and devastating marine heatwaves (MHWs) on record, with a temperature anomaly exceeding 4°C. This shallow semi-enclosed continental shelf region is widely recognized as a significant hotspot for MHWs with associated incidences of harmful algae blooms. Previous studies have highlighted the importance of mixed layer shoaling as a crucial factor in the genesis of MHWs in the global ocean. The current study employed the Hybrid Coordinate Ocean Model reanalysis data set during 1994-2015 to delve into the mechanisms driving mixed layer shoaling during NECS-SYS MHW genesis. Our findings reveal the significant role of the northward propagating boreal summer intraseasonal oscillation in promoting MHW genesis and intensification. Specifically, boreal summer intraseasonal oscillation phases 5, 6, and 7 contribute to the favorable conditions that facilitate MHW formation by inducing mixed layer shoaling and increasing solar influx, with mixed layer shoaling playing a more dominant role. The current study provides insights into the relative influences of wind, salinity, and temperature on mixed layer shoaling. We observe that wind plays the most significant role in mixed layer shoaling, followed by temperature and salinity. The boreal summer intraseasonal oscillation induced wind relaxation, increased shortwave radiation, and freshwater influx lead sea surface temperature by 7, 5, and 4 days, respectively. Importantly, mixed layer shoaling leads SST anomalies by 1-2 days. Therefore, the current study also suggests an intraseasonal predictability source for NECS-SYS MHWs.

In the equatorial Indian Ocean, the largest subseasonal temperature variations in the upper ocean are observed below the mixed layer. Subsurface processes can influence mixed layer temperature and consequently air-sea coupling. However, the physical processes driving temperature variability at these depths are not well quantified. During the boreal winter, the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) partly drives upper ocean heat content (OHC) variations. Therefore, to understand processes driving subseasonal OHC variability in the equatorial Indian Ocean, we use an observationally constrained, physically consistent ocean state estimate from the Estimating the Circulation and Climate of the Ocean (ECCO) Consortium. Using a heat budget analysis, we show that the main driver of subseasonal OHC variability in the ECCO ocean state estimate is horizontal advection. Along the equator, OHC variations are driven by zonal advection while the role of meridional advection becomes more important away from the equator. During the active phase of the MJO, net air-sea heat fluxes damp OHC variability along the equator, while away from the equator net air-sea heat fluxes partly drive OHC variability. Equatorial OHC variations are found to be associated with processes driven by Kelvin and Rossby waves consistent with previous studies. By quantifying the physical processes, we highlight the important role of ocean dynamics in contributing to the observed variations of subseasonal OHC in the equatorial Indian Ocean.

One of the most prominent climate tipping elements is the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC), which can potentially collapse because of the input of fresh water in the North Atlantic. Although AMOC collapses have been induced in complex global climate models by strong freshwater forcing, the processes of an AMOC tipping event have so far not been investigated. Here, we show results of the first tipping event in the Community Earth System Model, including the large climate impacts of the collapse. Using these results, we develop a physics-based and observable early warning signal of AMOC tipping: the minimum of the AMOC-induced freshwater transport at the southern boundary of the Atlantic. Reanalysis products indicate that the present-day AMOC is on route to tipping. The early warning signal is a useful alternative to classical statistical ones, which, when applied to our simulated tipping event, turn out to be sensitive to the analyzed time interval before tipping.

The Southern Ocean plays a major role in controlling the evolution of Antarctic glaciers and in turn their impact on sea level rise. We present the Southern Ocean high-resolution (SOhi) simulation of the MITgcm ocean model to reproduce ice-ocean interaction at 1/24° around Antarctica, including all ice shelf cavities and oceanic tides. We evaluate the model accuracy on the continental shelf using Marine Mammals Exploring the Oceans Pole to Pole data and compare the results with three other MITgcm ocean models (ECCO4, SOSE, and LLC4320) and the ISMIP6 temperature reconstruction. Below 400 m, all the models exhibit a warm bias on the continental shelf, but the bias is reduced in the high-resolution simulations. We hypothesize some of the bias is due to an overestimation of sea ice cover, which reduces heat loss to the atmosphere. Both high-resolution and accurate bathymetry are required to improve model accuracy around Antarctica.

The coastal ocean contributes to regulating atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations by taking up carbon dioxide (CO₂) and releasing nitrous oxide (N₂O) and methane (CH₄). In this second phase of the Regional Carbon Cycle Assessment and Processes (RECCAP2), we quantify global coastal ocean fluxes of CO₂, N₂O and CH₄ using an ensemble of global gap-filled observation-based products and ocean biogeochemical models. The global coastal ocean is a net sink of CO₂ in both observational products and models, but the magnitude of the median net global coastal uptake is ∼60% larger in models (−0.72 vs. −0.44 PgC year⁻¹, 1998-2018, coastal ocean extending to 300 km offshore or 1,000 m isobath with area of 77 million km²). We attribute most of this model-product difference to the seasonality in sea surface CO₂ partial pressure at mid- and high-latitudes, where models simulate stronger winter CO₂ uptake. The coastal ocean CO₂ sink has increased in the past decades but the available time-resolving observation-based products and models show large discrepancies in the magnitude of this increase. The global coastal ocean is a major source of N₂O (+0.70 PgCO₂-e year⁻¹ in observational product and +0.54 PgCO₂ -e year⁻¹ in model median) and CH₄ (+0.21 PgCO₂-e year⁻¹ in observational product), which offsets a substantial proportion of the coastal CO₂ uptake in the net radiative balance (30%-60% in CO₂-equivalents), highlighting the importance of considering the three greenhouse gases when examining the influence of the coastal ocean on climate.

The Kuroshio Current (KC) in the East China Sea is one of the most prominent components of the ocean circulation system in the North Pacific. The onshore intensification of the KC is found to drive nutrient-rich upwelling in the shelf regions, induce anomalous warming that leads to coastal marine heatwaves, and reduce the ability of the oceans to absorb anthropogenic carbon dioxide. Based on altimeter and in situ observations, we find an onshore acceleration and offshore deceleration of the KC over the past three decades. This intensification is characterized by a spatial mean onshore acceleration (offshore deceleration) of 0.39 (−0.63) cm s⁻¹ per decade. This phenomenon can be attributed to changes in wind stress curl (WSC) and oceanic stratification over the subtropical North Pacific. The weakened WSC decreases the vertical extent of the KC by reducing its transport and contributes to the offshore deceleration, whereas the enhanced stratification drives the uplift of the KC and contributes to the onshore acceleration. Our findings underscore the importance of establishing and maintaining a long-term monitoring network for the zonal variations of the KC in the future to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the associated impacts.

Based on latest estimates (e.g., https://sealevel.nasa.gov), global mean sea level has risen nearly 100 mm since 1993. However, the rate of rise has not been constant in space or time and recent observations (since ∼2008) reveal pronounced regional acceleration in the Gulf of Mexico (GoM). Here we use model solutions and observational data to identify the physical mechanisms responsible for enhanced rates of coastal sea-level rise in this region. We quantify the effect of offshore subsurface ocean warming on coastal sea-level rise and its relationship to regional hypsometry, the distribution of ocean area with depth. Using an Estimating the Circulation and Climate of the Ocean (ECCO) state estimate, we establish that coastal sea-level changes at the 10-year timescale are largely the result of changes in regional ocean mass, reflected in ocean bottom pressure. These coastal bottom pressure changes reflect both net mass flux into the Gulf, as well as internal mass redistribution within the Gulf, which can be understood as an isostatic ocean response to subsurface warming. We test the relationships among coastal sea-level, bottom pressure, and subsurface warming identified in ECCO using observations from satellite gravimetry, altimetry, tide gauges, and Argo floats. Estimates of mass redistribution explain a significant fraction of coastal sea-level trends observed by tide gauges. For instance, at St. Petersburg, Florida, this mass redistribution mechanism accounts for >50% of the coastal sea-level trend observed between 2008 and 2017. This study thus elucidates a physical mechanism whereby coastal sea-level responds to open-ocean subsurface density change.

The Paris Agreement calls for emissions reductions to limit climate change, but how will the carbon cycle change if it is successful? The land and oceans currently absorb roughly half of anthropogenic emissions, but this fraction will decline in the future. The amount of carbon that can be released before climate is mitigated depends on the amount of carbon the ocean and terrestrial ecosystems can absorb. Policy is based on model projections, but observations and theory suggest that climate effects emerging in today's climate will increase and carbon cycle tipping points may be crossed. Warming temperatures, drought, and a slowing growth rate of CO₂ itself will reduce land and ocean sinks and create new sources, making carbon sequestration in forests, soils, and other land and aquatic vegetation more difficult. Observations, data-assimilative models, and prediction systems are needed for managing ongoing long-term changes to land and ocean systems after achieving net-zero emissions.

• International agreements call for stabilizing climate at 1.5° above preindustrial, while the world is already seeing damaging extremes below that.
• If climate is stabilized near the 1.5° target, the driving force for most sinks will slow, while feedbacks from the warmer climate will continue to cause sources.
• Once emissions are reduced to net zero, carbon cycle-climate feedbacks will require observations to support ongoing active management to maintain storage.

Indian Ocean (IO) stratification has important effects on the air-sea interaction, ocean dynamics and ecology. It is, therefore, of significance to investigate the changes in IO stratification. In this study, we use Ensemble Empirical Mode Decomposition (EEMD) to extract the nonlinear long-term trend in the upper IO stratification quantified by potential energy anomaly. The results show that the strengthening of the stratification is spatially and temporally non-uniform. Specifically, the trend of stratification intensified gradually before 1996, but accelerated rapidly after 1996. Temperature and salinity changes play a crucial role in the fast enhancement of stratification and its regional differences. Temperature variations dominate the stratification trend in ∼90% of the IO area, while the contributions of salinity changes are mainly in the Southeast Indian Ocean (SEIO). Vertically, the rapid enhancement of stratification is caused by the trend of temperature and salt in the upper 400 m. We further perform temperature budget analysis and find that the warming trend in the upper 400 m South of IO is mainly modulated by vertical advection and meridional advection, while the warming in the North of IO is mainly induced by air-sea heat fluxes. Salinity budget analysis shows that ocean advection has played a primary role in modulating SEIO salinity over the past 20 years.

Interannual sea-level variations between the United States (U.S.) Northeast and Southeast Coasts separated by Cape Hatteras are significantly less correlated than those within their respective sectors, but the cause is poorly understood. Here we investigate atmospheric forcing mechanisms that affect the interannual sea-level co-variability between these two sectors using an adjoint reconstruction and decomposition approach in the framework of Estimating the Circulation and Climate of the Ocean (ECCO) ocean state estimate. We compare modeled and observed sea-level changes at representative locations in each sector: Nantucket Island, Massachusetts for the Northeast and Charleston, South Carolina for the Southeast. The adjoint reconstruction and decomposition approach used in this work allows for identification and quantification of the causal mechanisms responsible for observed coastal sea-level variability. Coherent sea-level variations in Nantucket and Charleston arise from nearshore wind stress anomalies north of Cape Hatteras and buoyancy forcing, especially from the subpolar North Atlantic, while offshore wind stress anomalies, in contrast, reduce co-variability. Offshore wind stress contributes much more to interannual sea-level variation at Charleston than at Nantucket, causing incoherent sea level variations between the two locations. Buoyancy forcing anomalies south of Charleston, including over the Florida shelf, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea, also reduce co-variability because they induce sea-level responses at Charleston but not Nantucket. However, the relative impact of buoyancy forcing on interannual sea-level co-variability between the two sectors is much smaller than that of offshore wind stress.

This paper describes a framework for identifying dominant atmospheric drivers of ocean variability. The method combines statistics of atmosphere-ocean fluxes with physics from an ocean general circulation model to derive atmospheric patterns optimized to excite variability in a specified ocean quantity of interest. We first derive the method as a weighted principal components analysis and illustrate its capabilities in a toy problem. Next, we apply our analysis to the problem of interannual upper ocean heat content (HC) variability in the North Atlantic Subpolar Gyre (SPG) using the adjoint of the MITgcm and atmosphere-ocean fluxes from the ECCOv4-r4 state estimate. An unweighted principal components analysis reveals that North Atlantic heat and momentum fluxes in ECCOv4-r4 have a range of spatiotemporal patterns. By contrast, dynamics-weighted principal components analysis collapses the space of these patterns onto a small subset - principally associated with the North Atlantic Oscillation - that dominates interannual SPG HC variance. By perturbing the ECCOv4-r4 state estimate, we illustrate the pathways along which variability propagates from the atmosphere to the ocean in a nonlinear ocean model. This technique is applicable across a range of problems across Earth System components, including in the absence of a model adjoint.

We quantify the volume transport and watermass transformation rates of the global overturning circulation using the Estimating the Circulation and Climate of the Ocean version 4 release 4 (ECCOv4r4) reanalysis product. The ECCO solution shows large rates of intercell exchange between the mid-depth and abyssal cells, consistent with other recent inferences. About 10 Sv of North Atlantic deep water enters the abyssal cell in the Southern Ocean and is balanced by a similar amount of apparrent diapycnal upwelling in the Indo-Pacific. However, much of the upwelling in ECCO's deep ocean is not associated with irreversible watermass transformations, as typically assumed in theoretical models. Instead, a dominant portion of the abyssal circulation in ECCO is associated with isopycnal volume tendencies, reflecting a deep ocean in a state of change and a circulation in which transient tendencies play a leading role in the watermass budget. These volume tendencies are particularly prominent in the Indo-Pacific, where ECCO depicts a cooling and densifying deep ocean with relatively little mixing-driven upwelling, in disagreement with recent observations of deep Indo-Pacific warming trends. Although abyssal ocean observations are insufficient to exclude the trends modeled by ECCO, we note that ECCO's parameterized diapycnal mixing in the abyssal ocean is much smaller than observational studies suggest and may lead to an under-representation of Antarctic Bottom Water consumption in the abyssal ocean. Whether or not ECCO's tendencies are realistic, they are a key part of its abyssal circulation and hence need to be taken into consideration when interpreting the ECCO solution.

Climate variability over the Tropical and North Pacific Ocean (TPO and NPO, respectively) modulates marginal sea variability. The South China Sea (SCS), the largest marginal sea in the western NPO, is an outstanding example of a region that responds quickly to climate change. However, there is considerable uncertainty regarding the response of the deep SCS to large-scale climate variability. Multivariate empirical orthogonal function analysis revealed three prominent modes of interconnected temperature anomaly fluctuations within the TPO and NPO. These coherent modes highlight the interactive dynamics among climate variations and reveal their modulation mechanisms for previously less explored potential temperature variabilities in the deep SCS. On the atmospheric bridge, external forces modify the upper-layer Luzon Strait Transport (LST) by adjusting the Ekman transport and Kuroshio intrusion. For the oceanic pathway, climate variations disturb the deep-layer LST by adjusting the barotropic flows in the upper layer.

Changes in the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) and associated Meridional Heat Transport (MHT) can affect climate and weather patterns, regional sea levels, and ecosystems. Direct observations of the AMOC are still limited, particularly in the South Atlantic. This study establishes a cost-effective trans-basin section to estimate for the first time the AMOC and MHT at 22.5°S, using only sustained ocean observations. For this, an optimal mapping method that minimizes the difference between surface in situ dynamic height and satellite altimetry was developed to retrieve monthly temperature and salinity profiles from Argo and XBT data along the 22.5°S section. The mean states, as well as the interannual and seasonal changes of the obtained AMOC and MHT were compared with other products. The mean AMOC and MHT for 22.5°S are 16.3 ± 3.2 Sv and 0.7 ± 0.2 PW, respectively, showing stronger transports during austral fall/winter and weaker in spring. The high-density XBT data available at the western boundary were vital for capturing the highly variable Brazil Current (BC), whose mean and variability was improved compared to other products. At 22.5°S, the North Atlantic Deep Water is divided into two cores that flow along both the western and the eastern boundaries near 2,500 m depth. Our results (a) suggest a greater influence of the western boundary current system on the AMOC variability at 22.5°S, (b) highlight the importance of high-density in situ data for AMOC estimates, and (c) contribute to a better understanding of the AMOC and MHT variability in the South Atlantic.

Although eddy parameterization schemes are often based on the local assumption, previous studies indicate that the nonlocality of total eddy mixing is prevalent at the Kuroshio Extension (KE). For eddy-permitting climate models, only mixing induced by eddies smaller than the resolvable scale of climate models (L^*) needs to be parameterized. Therefore, here we aim to estimate and predict the nonlocality of scale-dependent eddy mixing at the KE region. We consider the separation scale L^* ranging from 0.2° - 2.5°, which is comparable to the typical resolution of the ocean component of climate models. Using a submesoscale-permitting model solution (MITgcm llc4320) and Lagrangian particles, we estimate the scale-dependent mixing (SDM) nonlocality ellipses and then diagnose the square root of the ellipse area (L_{n, particle}). L_{n, particle} is a metric to quantify the degree of SDM nonlocality. We found that, for all the available L^* values we consider, the SDM nonlocality is prevalent in the KE region, and mostly elevated values of L_{n, particle} occur within the KE jet. As L^* decreases from 2.5° to 0.2° , the ratio L_{n, particle}/L^* increases from 0.8 to 8.9. This result indicates that the SDM nonlocality is more non-negligible for smaller L^*, which corresponds to climate models with relatively high resolution. As to the SDM nonlocality prediction, we found that compared to the conventional scaling and the curve-fitting methods, the random forest approach can better represent L_{n, particle} , especially in the coastal regions and within the intense KE jet. The area of the Eulerian momentum ellipses well capture the spatial pattern, but not the magnitude, of L_{n, particle} . Our efforts suggest that eddy parameterization schemes for eddy-permitting models may be improved by taking into account mixing nonlocality.

For eddy-permitting climate models, only eddies smaller than the smallest resolvable scale need to be parameterized. Therefore, it is important to study the diffusivities induced by eddies smaller than a specific separation scale L^*, that is, the scale-dependent eddy diffusivities. Using a submesoscale-permitting model solution (MITgcm llc4320), we estimate the scale-dependent eddy diffusivity in the Kuroshio Extension. We find that, as the separation scale L^* increases, the diffusivity increases, and the spatial structure approaches that of the total eddy diffusivity. We quantify this scale dependence through fitting the diffusivity to L^*n. Our derivation shows that n is approximately (a + 1)/2, where a is the eddy kinetic energy spectral slope. For domain-averaged diffusivity, n is 1.33. We then extend four existing mixing theories by including scale dependence. Our results show that both of the theories designed for intense-jet regions, the suppressed mixing length theory and the multiwavenumber theory, closely match the magnitude of the scale-dependent diffusivity but fail to capture well the diffusivity's spatial structure. However, the other two theories based on eddy size and Rhines scale can reasonably represent the spatial structure. Based on this finding, we propose an empirical formula for scale-dependent eddy diffusivity that well represents both the magnitude and the spatial structure of the eddy diffusivity. Our work demonstrates that climate models should use scale-dependent diffusivity, and designing appropriate empirical formulas may be a reasonable approach to represent these scale-dependent diffusivities. Also, our diagnostic framework and theories for scale-dependent eddy diffusivity may be applicable to the global ocean.

Oceanic eddy-induced meridional heat transport (EHT) is an important process in the Southern Ocean heat budget, the variability of which significantly modulates global meridional overturning circulation (MOC) and Antarctic sea-ice extent. Although it is recognized that mesoscale eddies with scales of ~40-300 km greatly contribute to the EHT, the role of submesoscale eddies with scales of ~1-40 km remains unclear. Here, using two state-of-the-art high-resolution simulations (resolutions of 1/48° and 1/24°), we find that submesoscale eddies significantly enhance the total poleward EHT in the Southern Ocean with an enhancement percentage reaching 19-48% in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current band. By comparing the eddy energy budgets between the two simulations, we detect that the primary role of submesoscale eddies is to strengthen mesoscale eddies (and thus their heat transport capability) through inverse energy cascade rather than directly through submesoscale heat fluxes. Due to the submesoscale-mediated enhancement of mesoscale eddies in the 1/48° simulation, the clockwise upper cell and anti-clockwise lower cell of the residual-mean MOC in the Southern Ocean are weakened and strengthened, respectively. This finding identifies a potential route to improve the mesoscale parameterization in climate models for more accurate simulations of the MOC and sea ice variability in the Southern Ocean.

This study addresses a longstanding issue regarding diatoms, namely, their fast growth. Diatoms, which broadly are phytoplankton with silica frustules, are the world's most productive microorganisms and dominate in polar and upwelling regions.

The lower cell of the meridional overturning circulation (MOC) is sourced by dense Antarctic Bottom Waters (AABWs), which form and sink around Antarctica and subsequently fill the abyssal ocean. For the MOC to "overturn," these dense waters must upwell via mixing with lighter waters above. Here, we investigate the processes underpinning such mixing, and the resulting water mass transformation, using an observationally forced, high-resolution numerical model of the Drake Passage in the Southern Ocean. In the Drake Passage, the mixing of dense AABW formed in the Weddell Sea with lighter deep waters transported from the Pacific Ocean by the Antarctic Circumpolar Current is catalyzed by energetic flows impinging on rough topography. We find that multiple topographic interaction processes facilitate the mixing of the two water masses, ultimately resulting in the upwelling of waters with neutral density greater than 28.19 kg m⁻³, and the downwelling of the lighter waters above. In particular, we identify the role of sharp density interfaces between AABW and overlying waters and find that the dynamics of the interfaces' interaction with topography can modify many of the processes that generate mixing. Such sharp interfaces between water masses have been observed in several parts of the global ocean, but are unresolved and unrepresented in climate-scale ocean models. We suggest that they are likely to play an important role in abyssal dynamics and mixing, and therefore require further exploration.

Given the success of the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) mission in mapping terrestrial water storage (TWS) since 2002, recent reconstructions of long-term TWS rely on the use of statistical machine learning to apply GRACE-derived information to past decades. Evaluating the interannual accuracy during nonobservational periods is a key challenge. This study develops a comprehensive framework to discuss the interannual accuracy of three different TWS reconstructions during 1981-2019, including (a) global-scale accuracy assessment using GRACE and satellite laser ranging data; (b) regional-scale accuracy testing across various underlying surfaces (i.e., rivers, lakes, and glaciers); and (c) investigation of relevant evidence from other Earth subsystems (i.e., historic climate events, sea level budget, and polar motion). Among the three reconstructions, the one that additionally corrects glacial TWS changes (REC2) detects a breaking point in the 1990s and further closes the interannual sea level budget with an absolute difference reduction to 5.13 mm; the reconstruction that is forced by local meteorological conditions (REC1), accounting for 54% of the GRACE-derived signal energy, underestimates glacial TWS variability but outperforms the other reconstructions in reproducing lake levels, basin-scale water balances, and climate events at the interannual scale, while the others consider 95%-99% of the GRACE-derived signal energy. The relatively high accuracy of REC1 (and REC2) in reflecting interannual changes in nonglacial (and glacial) regions is further confirmed by explaining the χ₂- (and χ₁-) component polar motion. Ten to 20% of the interannual polar motion remains unexplained, indicating room for improvement in interannual TWS reconstruction.

We have assembled 2 851 702 nearly cloud-free cutout images (sized 144 km x 144 km) of sea surface temperature (SST) data from the entire 2012-2020 Level-2 Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) dataset to perform a quantitative comparison to the ocean model output from the MIT General Circulation Model (MITgcm). Specifically, we evaluate outputs from the LLC4320 (LLC, latitude-longitude-polar cap) 1/48^o global-ocean simulation for a 1-year period starting on 17 November 2011 but otherwise matched in geography and the day of the year to the VIIRS observations. In lieu of simple (e.g., mean, standard deviation) or complex (e.g., power spectrum) statistics, we analyze the cutouts of SST anomalies with an unsupervised probabilistic autoencoder (PAE) trained to learn the distribution of structures in SST anomaly (SSTa) on ~ 10-80 km scales (i.e., submesoscale to mesoscale). A principal finding is that the LLC4320 simulation reproduces, over a large fraction of the ocean, the observed distribution of SSTa patterns well, both globally and regionally. Globally, the medians of the structure distributions match to within 2σ for 65 % of the ocean, despite a modest, latitude-dependent offset. Regionally, the model outputs reproduce mesoscale variations in SSTa patterns revealed by the PAE in the VIIRS data, including subtle features imprinted by variations in bathymetry. We also identify significant differences in the distribution of SSTa patterns in several regions: (1) in an equatorial band equatorward of 15^o; (2) in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC), especially in the eastern half of the Indian Ocean; and (3) in the vicinity of the point at which western boundary currents separate from the continental margin. It is clear that region 3 is a result of premature separation in the simulated western boundary currents. The model output in region 2, the southern Indian Ocean, tends to predict more structure than observed, perhaps arising from a misrepresentation of the mixed layer or of energy dissipation and stirring in the simulation. The differences in region 1, the equatorial band, are also likely due to model errors, perhaps arising from the shortness of the simulation or from the lack of high-frequency and/or wavenumber atmospheric forcing. Although we do not yet know the exact causes for these model-data SSTa differences, we expect that this type of comparison will help guide future developments of high-resolution global-ocean simulations.

Observed Antarctic sea ice trends up to 2015 have a distinct regional and seasonal pattern, with a loss during austral summer and autumn in the Bellingshausen and Amundsen Seas, and a year-round increase in the Ross Sea. Global climate models generally failed to reproduce the magnitude of sea ice trends implying that the models miss relevant mechanisms. One possible mechanism is basal meltwater, which is generally not included in the current generation of climate models. Previous work on the effects of meltwater on sea ice has focused on thermodynamic processes. However, local freshening also leads to dynamic changes, affecting ocean currents through geostrophic balance. Using a coupled ocean/sea-ice/ice-shelf model, we demonstrate that basal melting can intensify coastal currents in West Antarctica and the westward transport of sea ice. This change in transport results in sea ice anomalies consistent with observations, and may explain the disparity between climate models and observations.

The Arctic Ocean's Beaufort Gyre (BG) is a wind-driven reservoir of relatively fresh seawater, situated beneath time-mean anticyclonic atmospheric circulation, and is covered by mobile pack ice for most of the year. Liquid freshwater accumulation in and expulsion from this gyre is of critical interest due to its potential to affect the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation and due to the importance of freshwater in modulating vertical fluxes of heat, nutrients and carbon in the ocean, and exchanges of heat and moisture with the atmosphere. Here, we investigate the hypothesis that wind-driven sea ice transport into/from the BG region influences the freshwater content of the gyre and its variability. To test this hypothesis, we use the results of a coordinated climate response function experiment with four ice-ocean models, in combination with targeted experiments using a regional setup of the MITgcm, in which we rotate the surface wind forcing vectors (thereby changing the ageostrophic component of these winds). Our results show that, via an effect on the net thermodynamic growth rate, anomalies in sea ice transport into the BG affect liquid freshwater adjustment. Specifically, increased ice import increases freshwater retention in the gyre, whereas ice export decreases freshwater in the gyre. Our results demonstrate that uncertainty in the ageostrophic component of surface winds, and in the dynamic sea ice response to these winds, has important implications for ice thermodynamics and freshwater. This sensitivity may explain some of the observed inter-model spread in simulations of Beaufort Gyre freshwater and its adjustment in response to wind forcing.

Melt rates of West Antarctic ice shelves in the Amundsen Sea track large decadal variations in the volume of warm water at their outlets. This variability is generally attributed to wind-driven variations in warm water transport toward ice shelves. Inspired by conceptual representations of the global overturning circulation, we introduce a simple model for the evolution of the thermocline, which caps the warm water layer at the ice-shelf front. This model demonstrates that interannual variations in coastal polynya buoyancy forcing can generate large decadal-scale thermocline depth variations, even when the supply of warm water from the shelf-break is fixed. The modeled variability involves transitions between bistable high and low melt regimes, enabled by feedbacks between basal melt rates and ice front stratification strength. Our simple model captures observed variations in near-coast thermocline depth and stratification strength, and poses an alternative mechanism for warm water volume changes to wind-driven theories.

Subantarctic Mode Water (SAMW) forms north of the Subantarctic Front, in regions of deep winter mixed layers, and is important to the absorption and storage of anthropogenic CO₂ and heat. Two SAMW pools exist in the Pacific, a lighter Central mode (CPSAMW), and a denser Southeast mode (SEPSAMW). Both have experienced significant interannual variability in thickness and properties in recent years. We compute mixed layer temperature and salinity budgets for the two SAMW formation regions, to determine the relative contribution of processes driving variability in the properties of mixed layers that subduct to form SAMW. The dominant drivers of temperature and salinity variability are shown to be surface fluxes, horizontal advection, and entrainment of deeper water. Salt advection into each SAMW formation region is found to be strongly correlated with changes in sea ice area in the northern Ross Sea, with lags of up to 2 years. Further correlation is found between meridional salt advection in the southeast Pacific formation regions, and sea ice area in the northern Amundsen/Bellingshausen seas, suggesting that freshwater derived from sea ice melt reaches the SEPSAMW formation region within 6 months. In 2016, strong advective freshening of the SEPSAMW formation region, linked to increased winter sea ice in the Amundsen/Bellingshausen seas, led to anomalously fresh mixed layers. However, a regime change in Antarctic sea ice in 2016 resulted in a subsequent lack of the usual advective freshening in the SEPSAMW formation region, driving increased salinity of the mixed layer the following year.

The time series of downward particle flux at 3000 m at the Porcupine Abyssal Plain Sustained Observatory (PAP-SO) in the Northeast Atlantic is presented for the period 1989 to 2018. This flux can be considered to be sequestered for more than 100 years. Measured levels of organic carbon sequestration (average 1.88 gm⁻² y⁻¹ ) are higher on average at this location than at the six other time series locations in the Atlantic. Interannual variability is also greater than at the other locations (organic carbon flux coefficient of variation = 73%). We find that previously hypothesised drivers of 3,000 m flux, such as net primary production (NPP) and previous-winter mixing are not good predictors of this sequestration flux. In contrast, the composition of the upper ocean biological community, specifically the protozoan Rhizaria (including the Foraminifera and Radiolaria) exhibit a close relationship to sequestration flux. These species become particularly abundant following enhanced upper ocean temperatures in June leading to pulses of this material reaching 3,000 m depth in the late summer. In some years, the organic carbon flux pulses following Rhizaria blooms were responsible for substantial increases in carbon sequestration and we propose that the Rhizaria are one of the major vehicles by which material is transported over a very large depth range (3,000 m) and hence sequestered for climatically relevant time periods. We propose that they sink fast and are degraded little during their transport to depth. In terms of atmospheric CO₂ uptake by the oceans, the Radiolaria and Phaeodaria are likely to have the greatest influence. Foraminifera will also exert an influence in spite of the fact that the generation of their calcite tests enhances upper ocean CO₂ concentration and hence reduces uptake from the atmosphere.

Iceberg A-68 separated from the Larsen C Ice Shelf in July 2017 and the impact of this event on the local ocean circulation has yet to be assessed. Here, we conduct numerical simulations of ocean dynamics near and below the ice shelf pre- and post-calving. Results agree with in situ and remote observations of the area as they indicate that basal melt is primarily controlled by wintertime sea-ice formation, which in turn produces High Salinity Shelf Water (HSSW). After the calving event, we simulate a 50% increase in HSSW intrusion under the ice shelf, enhancing ocean heat delivery by 30%. This results in doubling of the melt rate under Gipps Ice Rise, suggesting a positive feedback for further retreat that could destabilize the Larsen C Ice Shelf. Assessing the impact of ice-front retreat on the heat delivery under the ice is crucial to better understand ice-shelf dynamics in a warming environment.

Climate change is affecting a wide range of global systems, with polar ecosystems experiencing the most rapid change. Although climate impacts affect lower-trophic-level and short-lived species most directly, it is less clear how long-lived and mobile species will respond to rapid polar warming because they may have the short-term ability to accommodate ecological disruptions while adapting to new conditions. We found that the population dynamics of an iconic and highly mobile polar-associated species are tightly coupled to Arctic prey availability and access to feeding areas. When low prey biomass coincided with high ice cover, gray whales experienced major mortality events, each reducing the population by 15 to 25%. This suggests that even mobile, long-lived species are sensitive to dynamic and changing conditions as the Arctic warms.

This contribution to the RECCAP2 (REgional Carbon Cycle Assessment and Processes) assessment analyzes the processes that determine the global ocean carbon sink, and its trends and variability over the period 1985-2018, using a combination of models and observation-based products. The mean sea-air CO₂ flux from 1985 to 2018 is −1.6 ± 0.2 PgC yr⁻¹ based on an ensemble of reconstructions of the history of sea surface pCO₂ (pCO₂ products). Models indicate that the dominant component of this flux is the net oceanic uptake of anthropogenic CO₂ , which is estimated at −2.1 ± 0.3 PgC yr⁻¹ by an ensemble of ocean biogeochemical models, and −2.4 ± 0.1 PgC yr⁻¹ by two ocean circulation inverse models. The ocean also degasses about 0.65 ± 0.3 PgC yr⁻¹ of terrestrially derived CO₂ , but this process is not fully resolved by any of the models used here. From 2001 to 2018, the pCO₂ products reconstruct a trend in the ocean carbon sink of −0.61 ± 0.12 PgC yr⁻¹  decade⁻¹ , while biogeochemical models and inverse models diagnose an anthropogenic CO₂ -driven trend of −0.34 ± 0.06 and −0.41 ± 0.03 PgC yr⁻¹  decade⁻¹, respectively. This implies a climate-forced acceleration of the ocean carbon sink in recent decades, but there are still large uncertainties on the magnitude and cause of this trend. The interannual to decadal variability of the global carbon sink is mainly driven by climate variability, with the climate-driven variability exceeding the CO₂-forced variability by 2-3 times. These results suggest that anthropogenic CO₂ dominates the ocean CO₂ sink, while climate-driven variability is potentially large but highly uncertain and not consistently captured across different methods.

The Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT) satellite is expected to observe sea surface height (SSH) down to scales approaching ∼15 km, revealing submesoscale patterns that have never before been observed on global scales. Features at these soon-to-be-observed scales, however, are expected to be significantly influenced by internal gravity waves, fronts, and other ageostrophic processes, presenting a serious challenge for estimating surface velocities from SWOT observations. Here we show that a data-driven approach can be used to estimate the surface flow, particularly the kinematic signatures of smaller scale flows, from SSH observations, and that it performs significantly better than using the geostrophic relationship. We use a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) trained on submesoscale-permitting high-resolution simulations to test the possibility of reconstructing surface vorticity, strain, and divergence from snapshots of SSH. By evaluating success using pointwise accuracy and vorticity-strain-divergence joint distributions, we show that the CNN works well when inertial gravity wave amplitudes are relatively weak. When the wave amplitudes are strong, reconstructions of vorticity and strain are less accurate; however, we find that the CNN naturally filters the wave-divergence, making divergence a surprisingly reliable field to reconstruct. We also show that when applied to realistic simulations, a CNN model pretrained with simpler simulation data performs well, indicating a possible path forward for estimating real flow statistics with limited observations.

The internal-wave (IW) continuum of a regional ocean model is studied in terms of the vertical spectral kinetic-energy (KE) fluxes and transfers at high vertical wavenumbers. Previous work has shown that this model permits a partial representation of the IW cascade. In this work, vertical spectral KE flux is decomposed into catalyst, source, and destination vertical modes and frequency bands of nonlinear scattering, a framework that allows for the discernment of different types of nonlinear interactions involving both waves and eddies. Energy transfer within the supertidal IW continuum is found to be strongly dependent on resolution. Specifically, at a horizontal grid spacing of 1/48°, most KE in the supertidal continuum arrives there from lower frequency modes through a single nonlinear interaction, while at 1/384° and with sufficient vertical resolution KE transfers within the supertidal IW continuum are comparable in size to KE transfer from lower-frequency modes. Additionally, comparisons are made with existing theoretical and observational work on energy pathways in the IW continuum. Induced diffusion (ID) is found to be associated with a weak forward frequency transfer within the supertidal IW continuum. ID is also limited to the highest vertical wavenumbers and is more sensitive to resolution relative to spectrally local interactions (LI). At the same time, ID-like processes involving high vertical-wavenumber near-inertial and tidal waves as well as low-vertical-wavenumber eddy fields are substantial, suggesting that the processes giving rise to a Garrett-Munk-like spectra in the present numerical simulation and perhaps the real ocean may be more varied than in idealized or wave-only frameworks.

Deep vertical velocity is a critical factor causing deficiencies in Sverdrup theory. However, few studies have focused on its influence in the low-latitude western Pacific. Through multiple analyses of observational, reanalysis, and simulation data, this study explored the contribution of deep non-zero vertical velocity to the Sverdrup transport inaccuracy in the low-latitude North Pacific. The vertical velocities inducing relatively small non-Sverdrup transport exist within 1500-2500 m, which exhibit similar patterns with opposite values to the south and north of 13°N. The zonally integrated meridional volume transport associated with these vertical velocities displays non-negligible dipolar zonal bands west of approximately 150°W. The positive and negative transport bands, centered at 11°N and 17°N, can reach an amplitude of approximately 8.0 Sv when integrated from the eastern boundary to 140°E. On average, such integrated meridional transport makes up roughly half of the prominent Sverdrup transport discrepancies in the central-western Pacific. Further investigation indicated that the spatial pattern of these vertical velocities is modulated by ocean topography and deep southward currents. Moreover, a near-global test suggested that the meridional non-Sverdrup transport related to deep vertical velocity is widespread and undergoes remarkable multidecadal variation. This study reveals the disruptive role of deep vertical velocity in disturbing the Sverdrup balance and emphasizes the consideration of its long-term variation when diagnosing wind-driven circulation changes using Sverdrup theory.

Wind power input to near-inertial motions is an important energy source for generating diapycnal mixing in the ocean. However, the distribution and long-term trend of this input over the Southern Ocean have yet to be quantified. In this study, we investigate the near-inertial wind power input (WPI _i ) to the Southern Ocean using a global eddy-permitting coupled ocean-sea ice model forced by a high-resolution atmospheric reanalysis product. Our results reveal a zonally asymmetric distribution of WPI _i in the Southern Ocean, with the strongest input in the South Indian Ocean and the weakest in the South Pacific. The integrated WPI _i between 30°S and 60°S exhibits a significant positive trend over the past four decades due to the intensification of mesoscale weather systems. The surface mixed-layer depth is found to modulate the spatial pattern and trend of WPI _i by altering the surface near-inertial currents.

Abstract. We investigate ocean dynamics at different scales in the Agulhas Current system, a region of important interocean exchange of heat and energy. While ocean observations and some of the most advanced climate models capture the larger mesoscale dynamics (> 100 km), the smaller-scale fronts and eddies are underrepresented. The recently launched NASA-CNES Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT) wide-swath altimeter mission observes the smaller ocean geostrophic scales down to 15 km in wavelength globally. Here we will analyse different eddy diagnostics in the Agulhas Current region and quantify the contributions from the larger mesoscales observable today and the smaller scales to be observed with SWOT. Surface geostrophic diagnostics of eddy kinetic energy, strain, and energy cascades are estimated from modelled sea surface height (SSH) fields of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology general circulation model (MITgcm) latitude-longitude polar cap (LLC4320) simulation subsampled at 1/10?. In this region, the smaller scales (<150 km) have a strong signature on the horizontal geostrophic strain rate and for all eddy diagnostics in the Western Boundary Current and along the meandering Agulhas Extension. We investigate the horizontal cascade of energy using a coarse-graining technique, and we observe that the wavelength range where the inverse cascade occurs is biased towards larger mesoscale wavelengths with today's altimetric sampling. We also calculate the projected sampling of the eddy diagnostics under the SWOT swaths built with the NASA-CNES simulator to include the satellite position and realistic noise. For the swaths, a neural network noise mitigation method is implemented to reduce the residual SWOT random error before calculating eddy diagnostics. In terms of SSH, observable wavelengths of 15 to 20 km are retrieved after neural network noise mitigation, as opposed to wavelengths larger than 40 km before the noise reduction.

Due to limited observational coverage, monitoring the warming of the global ocean, especially the deep ocean, remains a challenging sampling problem. Seismic ocean thermometry (SOT) complements existing point measurements by inferring large-scale averaged ocean temperature changes using the sound waves generated by submarine earthquakes, called T waves. We demonstrate here that Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO) hydrophones can record T waves with a higher signal-to-noise ratio compared to a previously used land-based T-wave station. This allows us to use small earthquakes (magnitude <4.0), which occur much more frequently than large events, dramatically improving the resulting temporal resolution of SOT. We also find that the travel time changes of T waves at the land-based T -wave station and the CTBTO hydrophone show small but systematic differences, although the two stations are only about 20 km apart. We attribute this feature to their different acoustic mode components sampling different parts of the ocean. Applying SOT to two CTBTO hydrophones in the East Indian Ocean reveals signals from decadal warming, seasonal variations, and mesoscale eddies, some of which are missing or underestimated in previously available temperature reconstructions. This application demonstrates the great advantage of hydrophone stations for global SOT, especially in regions with a low seismicity level.

Arguably, the most conspicuous evidence for anthropogenic climate change lies in the Arctic Ocean. For example, the summer-time Arctic sea ice extent has declined over the last 40 years and the Arctic Ocean freshwater storage has increased over the last 30 years. Coupled climate models project that this extra freshwater will pass Greenland to enter the sub-polar North Atlantic Ocean (SPNA) in the coming decades. Coupled climate models also project that the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) will weaken in the twenty-first century, associated with SPNA buoyancy increases. Yet, it remains unclear when the Arctic anthropogenic freshening signal will be detected in the SPNA, or what form the signal will take. Therefore, this article reviews and synthesizes the state of knowledge on Arctic Ocean and SPNA salinity variations and their causes. This article focuses on the export processes in data-constrained ocean circulation model hindcasts. One challenge is to quantify and understand the relative importance of different competing processes. This article also discusses the prospects to detect the emergence of Arctic anthropogenic freshening and the likely impacts on the AMOC. For this issue, the challenge is to distinguish anthropogenic signals from natural variability.

Within the last century, the global sea level has risen between 16 and 21 cm and will likely accelerate into the future. Projections from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) show the global mean sea level (GMSL) rise may increase to up to 1 m (1000 mm) by 2100. The primary cause of the sea level rise can be attributed to climate change through the thermal expansion of seawater and the recession of glaciers from melting. Because of the complexity of the climate and environmental systems, it is very difficult to accurately predict the increase in sea level. The latest estimate of GMSL rise is about 3 mm/year, but as GMSL is a global measure, it may not represent local sea level changes. It is essential to obtain tailored estimates of sea level rise in coastline Florida, as the state is strongly impacted by the global sea level rise. The goal of this study is to model the sea level in coastal Florida using climate factors. Hence, water temperature, water salinity, sea surface height anomalies (SSHA), and El Niño southern oscillation (ENSO) 3.4 index were considered to predict coastal Florida sea level. The sea level changes across coastal Florida were modeled using both multiple regression as a broadly used parametric model and the generalized additive model (GAM), which is a nonparametric method. The local rates and variances of sea surface height anomalies (SSHA) were analyzed and compared to regional and global measurements. The identified optimal model to explain and predict sea level was a GAM with the year, global and regional (adjacent basins) SSHA, local water temperature and salinity, and ENSO as predictors. All predictors including global SSHA, regional SSHA, water temperature, water salinity, ENSO, and the year were identified to have a positive impact on the sea level and can help to explain the variations in the sea level in coastal Florida. Particularly, the global and regional SSHA and the year are important factors to predict sea level changes.

Over recent decades, the Bering Sea has experienced oceanic and atmospheric climate extremes, including record warm ocean temperature anomalies and marine heatwaves (MHWs), and increasingly variable air-sea heat fluxes. In this work, we assess the relative roles of surface forcing and ocean dynamical processes on mixed layer temperature (MLT) tendency by computing a closed mixed layer heat budget using the NASA/JPL Estimating the Circulation and Climate of the Ocean (ECCO) Ocean State and Sea Ice Estimate. We show that surface forcing drives the majority of MLT tendency in the spring and fall, and remains dominant to a lesser degree in winter and summer. Surface forcing anomalies are the dominant driver of monthly mixed layer temperature tendency anomalies (MLTa), driving an average of 72% of the MLTa over the ECCO record length (1992-2017). The surface turbulent heat flux (latent plus sensible) accounts for most of the surface heat flux anomalies in January-April and September-December, and the net radiative flux (net longwave plus net shortwave) dominates the surface heat flux anomalies in May-August. Our results suggest that atmospheric variability plays a significant role in Bering Sea ocean temperature anomalies through most of the year. Furthermore, they indicate a recent increase in ocean warming surface forcing anomalies, beginning in 2010.

The Pacific Equatorial Undercurrent (EUC) flows eastward across the Pacific at the equator in the thermocline. Its variability is related to El Niño. Moored acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) measurements recorded at 4 widely-separated sites along the equator in the EUC were compared to currents generated by version 4 release 4 of the Estimating the Circulation and Climate of the Ocean (ECCOv4r4) global model-data synthesis product. We are interested to learn how well ECCOv4r4 currents could complement sparse in situ current measurements. ADCP measurements were not assimilated in ECCOv4r4. Comparisons occurred at 5-m depth intervals at 165°E, 170°W, 140°W, and 110°W over time intervals of 10-14 years from 1995-2010. Hourly values of ECCOv4r4 and ADCP EUC core speeds were strongly correlated; similar for the EUC transport per unit width (TPUW). Correlations were substantially weaker at 110°W. Although we expected means and standard deviations of ECCOv4r4 currents to be smaller than ADCP values because of ECCOv4r4's grid representation error, the large differences were unforeseen. The appearance of ECCOv4r4 diurnal-period current oscillations was surprising. As the EUC moved eastward from 170°W to 140°W, the ECCOv4r4 TPUW exhibited a much smaller increase compared to the ADCP TPUW. A consequence of smaller ECCOv4r4 EUC core speeds was significantly fewer instances of gradient Richardson number (Ri) less than ¼ above and below the depth of the core speed compared to Ri computed with ADCP observations. We present linear regression analyses to use monthly-mean ECCOv4r4 EUC core speeds and TPUWs as proxies for ADCP measurements.

Seasonal change of atmospheric potential oxygen (APO ∼ O₂  + CO₂) is a tracer for air-sea O₂ flux with little sensitivity to the terrestrial exchange of O₂ and CO₂. In this study, we present the tropospheric distribution and inventory of APO in each hemisphere with seasonal resolution, using O₂ and CO₂ measurements from discrete airborne campaigns between 2009 and 2018. The airborne data are represented on a mass-weighted isentropic coordinate (M_θe) as an alternative to latitude, which reduces the noise from synoptic variability in the APO cycles. We find a larger seasonal amplitude of APO inventory in the Southern Hemisphere relative to the Northern Hemisphere, and a larger amplitude in high latitudes (low M _θe) relative to low latitudes (high M_θe) within each hemisphere. With a box model, we invert the seasonal changes in APO inventory to yield estimates of air-sea flux cycles at the hemispheric scale. We found a larger seasonal net outgassing of APO in the Southern Hemisphere (518 ± 52.6 Tmol) than in the Northern Hemisphere (342 ± 52.1 Tmol). Differences in APO phasing and amplitude between the hemispheres suggest distinct physical and biogeochemical mechanisms driving the air-sea O₂ fluxes, such as fall outgassing of photosynthetic O₂ in the Northern Hemisphere, possibly associated with the formation of the seasonal subsurface shallow oxygen maximum. We compare our estimates with four model- and observation-based products, identifying key limitations in these products or in the tools used to create them.

Two major trans-basin mooring arrays, the Rapid Climate Change-Meridional Overturning Circulation and Heatflux Array (RAPID) at 26.5°N since 2004 and the Overturning in the Subpolar North Atlantic Program (OSNAP) situated at 53°-60°N since 2014, have been continuously monitoring the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC). This study explores the connectivity of AMOC across these two mooring lines from a novel adiabatic perspective utilizing a model-based data set. The findings unveil significant in-phase connections facilitated by the adiabatic basinwide redistribution of water between the two lines on a monthly timescale. This adiabatic mode is a possible cause for the observed subpolar AMOC seasonality by OSNAP. Furthermore, the Labrador Sea was identified as a hotspot for adiabatic forcing of the overturning circulations, primarily attributed to its dynamic isopycnal movements.

The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) is a key component of the global climate but is not simulated consistently across models or model resolutions. Here, we use a hierarchy of the global coupled model HadGEM3-GC3.1, with ocean resolutions of 1°, ¼°, and 1/12°, to evaluate the subpolar AMOC and its sensitivity to horizontal resolution. In line with observations, the models show that the mean overturning and surface forced water mass transformation (SFWMT) are concentrated in the eastern subpolar gyre rather than in the Labrador Sea. However, the magnitude of the overturning along the OSNAP line at medium and high resolutions is 25% and 40% larger than in the observations, respectively. This disagreement in overturning strength is noted for both OSNAP East and OSNAP West, and is mainly due to anomalously large SFWMT rather than anomalously large interior mixing or overflow transport from the Nordic Seas. Over the Labrador Sea, the intensification of SFWMT with resolution is explained by a combination of two main biases. Anomalously warm surface water enhances heat loss and reduces the extension of marginal sea ice, which increases the surface density flux over the boundary of the basin. A bias in salinity leads to anomalously dense surface water that shifts the outcropping area of the AMOC isopycnal and results in intense dense water formation along the boundary of the basin at medium and high resolutions. Thus, our analysis sheds light on a range of model biases responsible for large overturning over the Labrador Sea in climate models.

We assess the Southern Ocean CO₂ uptake (1985-2018) using data sets gathered in the REgional Carbon Cycle Assessment and Processes Project Phase 2. The Southern Ocean acted as a sink for CO₂ with close agreement between simulation results from global ocean biogeochemistry models (GOBMs, 0.75 ± 0.28 PgC yr⁻¹ ) and pCO₂ -observation-based products (0.73 ± 0.07 PgC yr⁻¹ ). This sink is only half that reported by RECCAP1 for the same region and timeframe. The present-day net uptake is to first order a response to rising atmospheric CO₂ , driving large amounts of anthropogenic CO₂ (C_ant ) into the ocean, thereby overcompensating the loss of natural CO₂ to the atmosphere. An apparent knowledge gap is the increase of the sink since 2000, with pCO₂ -products suggesting a growth that is more than twice as strong and uncertain as that of GOBMs (0.26 ± 0.06 and 0.11 ± 0.03 Pg C yr⁻¹  decade⁻¹ , respectively). This is despite nearly identical pCO₂ trends in GOBMs and pCO₂ -products when both products are compared only at the locations where pCO₂ was measured. Seasonal analyses revealed agreement in driving processes in winter with uncertainty in the magnitude of outgassing, whereas discrepancies are more fundamental in summer, when GOBMs exhibit difficulties in simulating the effects of the non-thermal processes of biology and mixing/circulation. Ocean interior accumulation of C_ant points to an underestimate of C_ant uptake and storage in GOBMs. Future work needs to link surface fluxes and interior ocean transport, build long overdue systematic observation networks and push toward better process understanding of drivers of the carbon cycle.

Ice shelf basal melting is the primary mechanism driving mass loss from the Antarctic Ice Sheet, yet it is unknown how the localized melt enhancement from subglacial discharge will affect future Antarctic glacial retreat. We develop a parameterization of ice shelf basal melt that accounts for both ocean and subglacial discharge forcing and apply it in future projections of Denman and Scott Glaciers, East Antarctica, through 2300. In forward simulations, subglacial discharge accelerates the onset of retreat of these systems into the deepest continental trench on Earth by 25 years. During this retreat, Denman Glacier alone contributes 0.33 millimeters per year to global sea level rise, comparable to half of the contemporary sea level contribution of the entire Antarctic Ice Sheet. Our results stress the importance of resolving complex interactions between the ice, ocean, and subglacial environments in future Antarctic Ice Sheet projections.

Marine heatwaves are extreme warm water events that can cause devastating impacts on ecosystems and have complex socio-economic ramifications. Surface signals and drivers of marine heatwaves have been extensively investigated based on satellite observations, whereas their vertical structure in the global ocean remains unclear. In this study, we identify marine heatwave events in the epipelagic zone (0-200 m) using a four-dimensional spatio-temporal framework based on three ocean reanalysis datasets. We find that only about half of the marine heatwave events have continuous surface signals during their life cycles and around one-third always reside in the subsurface ocean without any imprint on sea surface temperature. The annual number of these subsurface marine heatwave events shows a significant increase in response to subsurface mean-state warming during the past three decades. Our findings reveal the limitation of identifying marine heatwaves solely based on the sea surface temperature and underscore the necessity of subsurface observations for monitoring marine heatwaves.

As a contribution to the Regional Carbon Cycle Assessment and Processes phase 2 (RECCAP2) project, we present synthesized estimates of Arctic Ocean sea-air CO₂ fluxes and their uncertainties from surface ocean pCO₂ -observation products, ocean biogeochemical hindcast and data assimilation models, and atmospheric inversions. For the period of 1985-2018, the Arctic Ocean was a net sink of CO₂ of 116 ± 4 TgC yr⁻¹ in the pCO₂ products, 92 ± 30 TgC yr⁻¹ in the models, and 91 ± 21 TgC yr⁻¹ in the atmospheric inversions. The CO₂ uptake peaks in late summer and early autumn, and is low in winter when sea ice inhibits sea-air fluxes. The long-term mean CO₂ uptake in the Arctic Ocean is primarily caused by steady-state fluxes of natural carbon (70% ± 15%), and enhanced by the atmospheric CO₂ increase (19% ± 5%) and climate change (11% ± 18%). The annual mean CO₂ uptake increased from 1985 to 2018 at a rate of 31 ± 13 TgC yr⁻¹  dec⁻¹ in the pCO₂ products, 10 ± 4 TgC yr⁻¹  dec ⁻¹ in the models, and 32 ± 16 TgC yr⁻¹  dec⁻¹ in the atmospheric inversions. Moreover, 77% ± 38% of the trend in the net CO₂ uptake over time is caused by climate change, primarily due to rapid sea ice loss in recent years. Furthermore, true uncertainties may be larger than the given ensemble standard deviations due to common structural biases across all individual estimates.

The North Atlantic meridional overturning circulation and its variability are examined in terms of the overturning in density space and diapycnal water mass transformation. The magnitude of the mean overturning is similar to the surface water mass transformation, but the density and properties of these waters are modified by diapycnal mixing. Surface waters are progressively densified while circulating cyclonically around the subpolar gyre, with the densest waters and deepest convection occurring in the Labrador Sea and Nordic Seas. The eddy-driven interaction between the convective interior and boundary currents is a key to the export of dense waters from marginal seas. Due to the multitude of pathways of dense waters within the subpolar gyre, as well as mixing with older waters, waters exiting the subpolar gyre have a wide range of ages, with a mean age on the order of a decade. As a result, interannual changes in water mass transformation are mostly balanced locally and do not result in changes in export to the subtropics. Only persistent changes in water mass transformation result in changes in export to the subtropics. The dilution of signals from upstream water mass transformation suggests that variability in export of dense waters to the subtropics may be controlled by other processes, including interaction of dense waters with the energetic upper ocean.

Abstract. Mercury (Hg) is a global persistent contaminant. Modeling studies are useful means of synthesizing a current understanding of the Hg cycle. Previous studies mainly use coarse-resolution models, which makes it impossible to analyze the role of turbulence in the Hg cycle and inaccurately describes the transport of kinetic energy. Furthermore, all of them are coupled with offline biogeochemistry, and therefore they cannot respond to short-term variability in oceanic Hg concentration. In our approach, we utilize a high-resolution ocean model (MITgcm-ECCO2, referred to as "high-resolution-MITgcm") coupled with the concurrent simulation of biogeochemistry processes from the Darwin Project (referred to as "online"). This integration enables us to comprehensively simulate the global biogeochemical cycle of Hg with a horizontal resolution of 1/5°. The finer portrayal of surface Hg concentrations in estuarine and coastal areas, strong western boundary flow and upwelling areas, and concentration diffusion as vortex shapes demonstrate the effects of turbulence that are neglected in previous models. Ecological events such as algal blooms can cause a sudden enhancement of phytoplankton biomass and chlorophyll concentrations, which can also result in a dramatic change in particle-bound mercury (Hg_aq^P ) sinking flux simultaneously in our simulation. In the global estuary region, including riverine Hg input in the high-resolution model allows us to reveal the outward spread of Hg in an eddy shape driven by fine-scale ocean currents. With faster current velocities and diffusion rates, our model captures the transport and mixing of Hg from river discharge in a more accurate and detailed way and improves our understanding of Hg cycle in the ocean.

Subsurface chlorophyll maximum (SCM) layers contribute considerably to the integrated biomass of the water column and can be strongly modulated by mesoscale eddies that are ubiquitous in the global ocean. The mechanisms of eddy-induced surface chlorophyll concentration have been extensively examined in the South China Sea (SCS). However, the potential impact of mesoscale eddies on SCM layers remains unclear. We examined the influence of mesoscale eddies on the depth, thickness and magnitude of SCM layers in the SCS using output from an eddy-permitting biological-physical coupled model over a 22-year period. Our study shows that nutrient distribution is largely driven by eddy dynamics, with cyclonic eddies enhancing the supply of inorganic nutrients in the upper layers by uplifting the thermocline, and downward displacement of the thermocline in anticyclonic eddies, reducing the nutrient supply into the euphotic zone from the depth. We found that anticyclonic (cyclonic) eddies are responsible for increased (decreased) SCM depth and decreased (increased) SCM magnitude; SCM thickness decreased in cyclonic eddies but slightly increased in anticyclonic eddies. The effects of mesoscale eddies depend on eddy amplitude. Maximal anomalies in depth, thickness and magnitude always occur near the center of eddies. Phytoplankton community structure at SCM layers is also affected by eddies, with more diatoms in cyclonic eddies and more coccolithophores in anticyclonic eddies. Our study will advance our understanding of mesoscale physical-biogeochemical interactions.

Surface ocean temperature and velocity anomalies at meso- and sub-meso-scales induce wind stress anomalies. These wind-front interactions, referred to as thermal (TFB) and current (CFB) feedbacks, respectively, have been studied in isolation at mesoscale, yet they have rarely been considered in tandem. Here, we assess the combined influence of TFB and CFB and their relative impact on surface wind stress derivatives. Analyses are based on output from two regions of the Southern Ocean in a coupled simulation with local ocean resolution of 2 km. Considering both TFB and CFB shows regimes of interference, which remain mostly linear down to the simulation resolution. The jointly-generated wind stress curl anomalies approach 10⁻⁵  Nm⁻³ , ∼20 times stronger than at mesoscale. The synergy of both feedbacks improves the ability to reconstruct wind stress curl magnitude and structure from both surface vorticity and SST gradients by 12%-37% on average, compared with using either feedback alone.

Near Inertial Oscillations (NIOs) are ocean oscillations forced by intermittent winds. They are most energetic at mid-latitudes, particularly in regions with atmospheric storm tracks. Wind-driven, large-scale NIOs are quickly scattered by ocean mesoscale eddies (with sizes ranging from 100 to 400 km), causing a significant portion of the NIO energy to propagate into the subsurface ocean interior. This kinetic energy pathway illustrates that the wind energy input to NIO is critical for maintaining deep ocean stratification and thus closing the total energy budget, as emphasised by numerous modelling studies. However, this wind energy input to NIO remains poorly observed on a global scale. A remote sensing approach that observes winds and ocean currents co-located in time and space with high resolution is necessary to capture the intermittent air-sea coupling. The current satellite observations do not meet these requirements. This study assesses the potential of a new satellite mission concept, Ocean DYnamics and Surface Exchange with the Atmosphere (OSYSEA), to recover wind-forced NIOs from co-located winds and currents. To do this, we use an Observation System Simulation Experiment (OSSE) based on hourly observations of ocean surface currents and surface winds from five surface moorings covering latitudes from 15° to 50°. ODYSEA wind and current observations are expected to have a spatial resolution of 10 km with about a 12 h sampling frequency in mid-latitudes. Results show that NIOs can be recovered with high accuracy using the ODYSEA spatial and temporal resolution, but only if observations are made over a wide area of 1800 km. A narrower swath (1000 km) may lead to significant aliasing.

Recent simulations suggest that submesoscale motions with scales smaller than 30 km and frequencies greater than 1 day⁻¹ drive upward vertical heat transport. These simulations have prompted us to revisit the mechanisms that explain high-frequency (HF) vertical heat fluxes (VHFs) within the surface mixed layer (ML). Here, an idealized numerical simulation of a re-entrant channel flow with an unbalanced submesoscale thermal front is used to analyze the impact of surface cooling on HF VHFs. Two types of simulations are analyzed: forced and unforced. The VHFs cospectrum analysis shows that surface diurnal cooling increases VHFs, reaching frequencies larger than 1 day⁻¹ . However, the fastest-growing length scale of ML instabilities limits the extension of positive VHFs toward fine scales. Symmetric and gravitational instabilities are the main conduits producing ageostrophic HF and small-scale structures, which in turn enhance upward VHFs across the diurnal frequency. A comparison between forced-idealized simulations with the K-profile parameterization scheme and a realistic regional simulation in the frequency-wavenumber space, reveals that the two simulation types reproduce similar VHFs near the diurnal frequency. However, the realistic simulation displays higher VHFs than the forced-idealized simulation. This study emphasizes that surface diurnal cooling significantly impacts HF VHFs. However, this impact is not sufficient to reach the HF VHFs estimated in realistic submesoscale-permitting and tidal-resolving simulations.

Because regional sea-level rise can threaten coastal communities, understanding and quantifying the underlying process contributing to reginal sea-level budget are essential. Here, we assessed whether the regional sea-level rise on the northwestern Pacific marginal seas can be closed with a combination of observations and ocean reanalyses over 1993-2017, as well as with independent observations from in situ profiles including Argo floats and satellite gravity measurements since 2003. The assessment represents that the major contributions come from the land ice melt and sterodynamic components, while the spatial pattern and interannual variability are dominated by sterodynamic effect. The observation-based estimate further shows that along continental shelves, sterodynamic sea-level changes are substantially induced by ocean mass redistribution due to changes in ocean circulation. This result highlights the ocean mass change between the deep ocean and shallow marginal seas, which plays a role in driving regional sea-level rise and variability.

As they rim the basin from the southern tip of Greenland to the southern Labrador coast, the waters in the Labrador Sea boundary current undergo a significant transformation in salinity and temperature, but much less so in density. Motivated by these observations, a previously developed simple three-layer model is adapted to understand the processes responsible for this density-compensated overturning in the Labrador Sea. From our model simulations, we find that the density-compensating water mass transformation in the boundary current can be largely attributed to the combined effect of 1) direct atmospheric cooling of the relatively warm boundary current and 2) freshening due to mixing with the shallower and fresh waters derived from Greenland meltwater discharge and Arctic Ocean inflow. Freshening of the boundary current waters due to the excess of precipitation over evaporation in the basin has an important, but less impactful role in the density compensation. Studies examining the sensitivity of the density compensation to the freshwater entry location reveal a larger impact when the freshwater enters the boundary current on the Greenland side of the basin, compared to the Labrador side. These results yield insights into how increasing meltwater in the subpolar North Atlantic will affect the overturning.

Abstract. Global biogeochemical ocean models are invaluable tools to examine how physical, chemical, and biological processes interact in the ocean. Satellite-derived ocean color properties, on the other hand, provide observations of the surface ocean, with unprecedented coverage and resolution. Advances in our understanding of marine ecosystems and biogeochemistry are strengthened by the combined use of these resources, together with sparse in situ data. Recent modeling advances allow the simulation of the spectral properties of phytoplankton and remote sensing reflectances, bringing model outputs closer to the kind of data that ocean color satellites can provide. However, comparisons between model outputs and analogous satellite products (e.g., chlorophyll a) remain problematic. Most evaluations are based on point-by-point comparisons in space and time, where spuriously large errors can occur from small spatial and temporal mismatches, whereas global statistics provide no information on how well a model resolves processes at regional scales. Here, we employ a unique suite of methodologies, the Probability Density Functions to Evaluate Models (PDFEM), which generate a robust comparison of these resources. The probability density functions of physical and biological properties of Longhurst's provinces are compared to evaluate how well a model resolves related processes. Differences in the distributions of chlorophyll a concentration (mg m⁻³) provide information on matches and mismatches between models and observations. In particular, mismatches help isolate regional sources of discrepancy, which can lead to improving both simulations and satellite algorithms. Furthermore, the use of radiative transfer in the model to mimic remotely sensed products facilitates model-observation comparisons of optical properties of the ocean.

The system of oceanic flows constituting the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) moves heat and other properties to the subpolar North Atlantic, controlling regional climate, weather, sea levels, and ecosystems. Climate models suggest a potential AMOC slowdown towards the end of this century due to anthropogenic forcing, accelerating coastal sea level rise along the western boundary and dramatically increasing flood risk. While direct observations of the AMOC are still too short to infer long-term trends, we show here that the AMOC-induced changes in gyre-scale heat content, superimposed on the global mean sea level rise, are already influencing the frequency of floods along the United States southeastern seaboard. We find that ocean heat convergence, being the primary driver for interannual sea level changes in the subtropical North Atlantic, has led to an exceptional gyre-scale warming and associated dynamic sea level rise since 2010, accounting for 30-50% of flood days in 2015-2020.

Ocean bottom pressure-gauge (OBP) records play an essential role in seafloor geodesy. Oceanographic fluctuations in OBP data, however, pose as a significant noise source in seafloor transient crustal deformation observations, including slow slip events (SSEs), making it crucial to evaluate them quantitatively. To extract the significant fluctuation phenomena common to multiple observation networks, including oceanographic fluctuations and tectonic signals, we applied principal component analysis (PCA) to the 3-year Dense Oceanfloor Network System for Earthquakes and Tsunamis (DONET) OBP time series for 40 stations during 2016-2019. PCA could separate several oceanographic signals based on the characteristics of their spatial distributions, although evident transient tectonic signals could not be confirmed from the observed pressure records during this observed period. The spatial distribution of the first four principal components (PCs) reflected the common component, inclined component along sea depth, longitude component, and parabola-like pattern, respectively. By subtracting each PC (in particular, PC-2 and PC-4) from the time series, we could significantly reduce the sea depth dependence of OBP records, which has been highlighted in several previous studies and is also evident in this region. We interpreted PCs 2-4 as the reflection of the strength and meandering of ocean geostrophic currents based on a comparison with the PC spatial distribution of the numerical oceanographic models. In addition, to evaluate the ability of PCA to separate transient tectonic signal from OBP time series, including oceanographic fluctuations, we conducted a synthetic ramp assuming an SSE by rectangular fault and then applied PCA. The assumed synthetic tectonic signal could be separated from the oceanographic signals and included in the principal component independently depending on its amplitude, suggesting that the spatial distribution of each PC would change if the amplitude of the synthetic signal were sufficiently large. We propose a transient event-detection method based on the spatial distribution difference of a specific PC with or without a tectonic signal. We used the normalized inner product (NIP) between these PCs as the indicator of their similarities. This method can detect transient tectonic signals more significantly than the moment-magnitude scale of 5.9 from OBP records.

Ocean chlorophyll time series exhibit temporal variability on a range of timescales due to environmental change, ecological interactions, dispersal, and other factors. The differences in chlorophyll temporal variability observed at stationary locations (Eulerian perspective) or following water parcels (Lagrangian perspective) are poorly understood. Here we contrasted the temporal variability of ocean chlorophyll in these two observational perspectives, using global drifter trajectories and satellite chlorophyll to generate matched pairs of Eulerian-Lagrangian time series. We found that for most ocean locations, chlorophyll variances measured in Eulerian and Lagrangian perspectives are not statistically different. In high latitude areas, the two perspectives may capture similar variability due to the large spatial scale of chlorophyll patches. In localized regions of the ocean, however, chlorophyll variability measured in these two perspectives may significantly differ. For example, in some western boundary currents, temporal chlorophyll variability in the Lagrangian perspective was greater than in the Eulerian perspective. In these cases, the observing platform travels rapidly across strong environmental gradients and constrained by the shelf topography, potentially leading to greater Lagrangian variability in chlorophyll. In contrast, we found that Eulerian chlorophyll variability exceeded Lagrangian variability in some key upwelling zones and boundary current extensions. In these cases, variability in the nutrient supply may generate intermittent chlorophyll anomalies in the Eulerian perspective, while the Lagrangian perspective sees the transport of such anomalies off-shore. These findings aid with the interpretation of chlorophyll time series from different sampling methodologies, inform observational network design, and guide validation of marine ecosystem models.

The formation and intensification of typhoons is a complex process where energy and mass exchanges happen between the ocean and the atmosphere. In most typhoon numerical studies, a static ocean and a dynamic atmosphere are used to reduce the complexity of modeling. Using the COAWST model, we studied the air-sea interactions of Typhoon Mujigae in 2015, Typhoon Merbok in 2017, and Typhoon Hato in 2017 over the South China Sea. With different translation speeds, track shapes, and intensities between these cyclones, they act as an excellent case study to analyze the air-sea coupling in the models. The inclusion of coupling between the ocean and atmosphere is found to improve the typhoon track simulation significantly. The bias in the cyclone tracks is reduced by 10%-40% in the coupled model. The upper ocean response to the typhoon was also analyzed using the coupled model output. The coupled simulations show that the major energy extraction occurs to the right of the track, which is consistent with satellite observation and latent heat release analysis. The coupling process shows the air-sea interactions and exchanges in the upper ocean along with the energy released during the passage of typhoons. The heat budget analysis shows that the cooling of the upper ocean is mainly attributed to the advection associated with the typhoon forcing. This study shows that it is necessary to include ocean feedback while analyzing a typhoon, and the application of coupled models can improve our understanding as well as the forecasting capability of typhoons.